EXIIBKK  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


JOHN  HENRY  NASH  LIBRARY 

<8>  SAN  FRANCISCO  <8> 

PRESENTED  TDTHE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

ROBERT  GORDON  SPRQUL,  PRESIDENT. 


MR.ANDMRS.MILTON  S.RAV 

CECILY,  VIRGINIA  AND  ROSALYN  RAY 


RAY  OIL  BURNER  COMPANY 


MODERN  METHODS  OF 

BOOK  COMPOSITION 


THE  PRACTICE  OF  TYPOGRAPHY 


MODERN  METHODS  OF 

BOOK  COMPOSITION 


A   TREATISE   ON 

TYPE-SETTING  BY  HAND  AND  BY   MACHINE 

AND   ON   THE  PROPER  ARRANGEMENT 

AND  IMPOSITION  OF  PAGES 


BY 
THEODORE    LOW    DE  VINNE,   A.M. 

n 


NEW  YORK 

THE   CENTURY  CO. 

1904 


Copyright,  1904,  by 
THEODORE  Low  DEVINNE 

Published  October,  190U 


THE  DEVINNE  PRESS 


CONTENTS 


Chapter 

i  EQUIPMENT. 


Types  .  .  .  Stands  .  .  .  Cases  .  .  .  Case-racks. 


ii  EQUIPMENT 39 

Galleys  and  galley-racks  .  .  .  Compositors'  implements 
Brass  rules  and  cases  for  labor-saving  rule  and  leads 
Dashes  and  braces  .  .  .  Leads  .  .  .  Furniture  of  wood 
and  of  metal .  .  .  Furniture  -  racks  .  .  .  Quotations  and 
electrotype  guards. 


in  COMPOSITION 75 

Time-work  and  piece-work  .  .  <  Customary  routine  on 
book-work  .  .  .  Justification  .  .  .  Spacing  and  leading 
Distribution  .  .  .  Composition  by  hand  and  machine 
Proper  methods  of  hahd-work . . .  Recent  mannerisms. 


iv  COMPOSITION  OF  BOOKS Ill 

Title-page  .  .  .  Preface  matter  .  .  .  Chapter  headings 
and  synopsis  .  .  .  Subheadings  .  .  .  Extracts .  . .  Notes 
and  illustrations  .  .  .  Running  titles  and  paging  at 
head  or  at  foot .  .  .  Poetry  .  .  .  Appendix  and  index 
Initials  .  .  .  Head-bands,  etc. 


v  DIFFICULT  COMPOSITION 171 

Algebra  .  .  .  Tables   and    table-work  .  .  .  Music  and 
music  cases  .  .  .  Genealogies. 


vi  Contents 

Chapter  Page 

vi  FOREIGN  LANGUAGES      .......    231 

Accents  .  .  .  Greek  .  .  .  Hebrew  .  .  .  German. 


vii  MAKING  UP 255 

The  running  title  .  .  .  Signatures  .  .  .  Notes,  tables, 
extracts,  and  illustrations. 


vni  STONE-WORK    

Stones  and  chases  .  .  .  Exact  adjustment  of  mar- 
gins .  .  .  Locking  up  ...  Taking  proofs  .  .  .  Correc- 
tions .  .  .  Clearing  away. 


ix  IMPOSITION 331 

Elementary  principles  .  .  .  Schemes  for  various  forms 
'from  two  and  four  to  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight 
pages .  .  .  Inset  forms  .  .  .  Oblong  pages  .  .  .  The  leaf- 
let .  .  .  Small  pamphlets  .  .  .  New  method  of  collating 
Folding-machines  .  .  .  Concluding  remarks. 


x  MACHINE- COMPOSITION 397 

Review  of  early  methods  .  .  .  General  organization 
Assembling  and  keyboard  mechanisms  .  .  .  Learning 
to  operate  .  .  .  Management  of  the  linotype  machine 
Temperature  of  metal  .  .  .  Treatment  of  matrices  and 
of  space-bands  .  .  .  The  melting-pot,  mould,  and  disk 
The  assembling  elevator  .  .  .  Correct  keyboard  fin- 
gering. 


PREFACE 

IN  A  BOOK  previously  published  the  literary 
side  of  type-setting  was  treated  under  the 
title  of  Correct  Composition.  This  book,  its 
intended  supplement,  will  be  confined  to  com- 
ments upon  the  mechanical  methods  of  Book 
Composition. 

In  ordinary  conversation  this  phrase  is  un- 
discriminatingly  applied  to  composed  types 
in  small  pages,  whether  plain  or  decorated,  of 
four  leaves  or  of  forty  volumes.  So  consid- 
ered, the  subject  seems  almost  limitless.  It 
must  be  evident  that  there  are  too  many 
kinds  of  books  and  too  many  fashions  in 
type-setting  to  be  thoroughly  described  in  an 
ordinary  duodecimo. 

The  book  composition  here  to  be  treated  is 
that  of  the  ordinary  book  of  the  established 
publisher— the  plain  book  made  to  be  used 
and  read  more  than  to  be  decorated  and  ad- 
mired as  an  exhibit  of  typographical  skill. 
As  the  plain  book  is  always  in  most  request, 
its  construction  should  be  the  earlier  study 

vii 


viii  Preface 

of  the  young  compositor,  for  whom  this  book 
has  been  prepared.  To  the  buyer  of  a  book 
who  is  also  its  reader,  its  value  is  in  the  im- 
portance, real  or  fancied,  of  its  information. 
Next  follows  easily  readable  type,  tastefully 
arranged  in  orderly  pages  with  proper  mar- 
gins, clearly  printed  in  strong  black  ink  on 
appropriate  but  unpretentious  paper.  En- 
graved illustrations  to  explain  the  text,  head- 
bands and  tail-pieces  of  harmonious  design 
that  close  the  staring  gaps  of  chapter  breaks 
and  vary  the  monotony  of  print,  here  and 
there  letters  or  lines  in  a  bright  red,  are  some 
of  a  few  permissible  attractions ;  but  after  all 
has  been  done  by  the  type-founder,  paper- 
maker,  designer,  and  printer,  the  great  value 
of  the  book  is  not  in  type  or  decoration,  but 
in  what  the  author  has  written. 

Scant  attention  can  be  given  to  decoration. 
To  describe  with  proper  detail  usual  methods 
of  workmanship  in  the  decorated  book  or 
pamphlet  that  is  now  in  favor  would  be  a 
hopeless  task.  A  thick  volume  of  facsimiles 
printed  in  colors  would  be  required  for  an 
instructive  exhibit  of  medieval  and  modern 
styles  of  printing,  but  the  book  so  prepared 
would  be  of  small  service  to  the  young  com- 
positor. The  decorated  book  is  not  a  proper 
model  for  every-day  service.  It  might  be 
harmful,  for  it  presents  suggestions  of  styles 


Preface  ix 

or  methods  that  are  impracticable  in  any 
printing-house  with  a  scant  supply  of  types 
or  borders.  Decoration  is  of  doubtful  value 
when  it  diverts  the  eye  from  matter  to  man- 
ner, from  the  thought  of  the  writer  to  the 
skill  of  the  printer.  The  unavoidably  dimin- 
ished performance  of  every  experimental  dec- 
orator with  type,  and  the  increased  cost  of 
his  work,  are  other  unpleasing  consequences. 
No  ornamental  style  now  in  vogue  can  be 
offered  as  one  of  permanent  favor,  for  fash- 
ions in  type-setting  are  as  fickle  as  fashions 
in  dress.  To  examine  and  compare  the  dif- 
ferent styles  of  decorative  composition  that 
came  in  and  went  out  of  vogue  during  every 
ten  years  of  the  last  century  is  to  be  fore- 
warned that  eccentricities  of  present  popu- 
larity may  be  disliked  in  the  near  future.' 

It  may  be  that  in  my  explanations  I  have 
been  more  minute  than  is  customary  in  man- 
uals of  printing.  An  expert  compositor  may 
smile  at  the  frequency  of  suggestions  that 
he  does  not  need  now,  but  there  was  a  time 
when  he  did  need  them.  Every  master  printer 
of  experience  will  agree  with  me  that  the 
apprentice  needs  minute  instruction,  perhaps 
to  reiteration,  in  the  rudiments  of  printing. 
To  space  words  evenly,  to  put  proper  blanks 
between  lines  of  display,  to  make  up  matter 
in  symmetrical  pages  and  to  impose  them 


x  Preface 

for  the  convenience  of  pressmen  and  binders, 
may  seem  trifles  to  those  compositors  who 
rate  speed  higher  than  skill  or  good  taste, 
but  the  remark  of  a  great  artist  may  here 
be  repeated,  Trifles  make  perfection,  and  per- 
fection is  not  a  trifle. 

The  equipment  of  a  book-printing  house 
with  the  new  styles  of  cases  and  stands  that 
are  required  in  modern  practice  has  received 
as  much  attention  as  space  allows,  but  the 
list  is  incomplete,  for  new  styles  of  merit  are 
increasing  in  number.  There  is  a  demand  in 
every  printing-house  for  more  compactness 
in  the  stowage  of  materials,  with  a  proper  pro- 
vision for  greater  facility  in  their  handling. 
As  an  aid  to  this  object,  suggestions  have 
been  made  about  new  arrangements  for  leads, 
brass  rules,  furniture,  and  extra  sorts  of  type. 

There  are  chapters  that  claim  the  attention 
of  a  mature  compositor.  Every  book-print- 
ing house  is  required  at  times  to  provide 
lines  or  paragraphs  in  the  proper  characters 
of  foreign  languages,  or  to  set  bars  of  music 
or  formulas  in  algebra.  To  those  who  have 
little  or  no  experience  in  the  handling  of  the 
strange  types  required,  the  information  here 
presented  will  be  of  service.  In  the  compila- 
tion of  this  matter  I  have  had  many  helpers, 
to  whom  I  here  renew  acknowledgments  and 
thanks. 


Preface  xi 

Algebra,  based  upon  an  article  in  Lefevre's 
Guide  Pratique  du  Compositeur,  was  revised 
and  made  clearer  by  Henry  Burchard  Fine, 
Ph.D.,  professor  of  mathematics  at  Princeton 
University. 

Music  was  specially  written  for  this  work 
by  Mr.  James  H.  Martin  of  New  York.  His 
treatise  on  this  subject  will  prove  a  thorough 
explanation  of  a  much-neglected  department 
of  composition. 

Greek  has  been  revised  by  Benjamin  E. 
Smith,  L.H.D.,  editor  of  the  Century  Dic- 
tionary. 

Hebrew  has  been  corrected  by  Mr.  Frank 
Horace  Vizetelly,  assistant  editor  of  the  Jew- 
ish Encyclopedia. 

These  departments  of  book  composition 
are  not  common,  but  they  are  sure  to  appear 
occasionally  in  ordinary  copy,  and  every  com- 
positor should  be  qualified  to  put  them  in  type 
with  a  reasonable  approach  to  correctness. 

Machine-composition  was  written  for  this 
work  by  Mr.  Philip  T.  Dodge,  president  of 
the  Mergenthaler  Linotype  Company. 

Correct  Keyboard  Fingering  was  contrib- 
uted by  Mr.  John  S.  Thompson,  instructor  of 
the  machine -composition  branch  of  the  In- 
land Printer  Technical  School,  and  author 
of  a  treatise  of  great  value  on  The  Mechanism 
of  the  Linotype. 


MODERN  METHODS  OP 

BOOK  COMPOSITION 


EQUIPMENT 

Types  .  .  .  Stands  .  .  .  Cases  .  .  .  Case-racks 


TYPES 

PRINTING-HOUSE  that  is 
fitted  for  the  practice  of  one 
branch  only  of  printing,  as  for 
law  cases,  weekly  newspapers, 
or  plain  reprints,  does  not  need 
a  large  variety  of  faces  or  sizes 
of  type,  but  when  it  is  in- 
tended that  it  shall  be  properly  equipped  for  all 
kinds  of  book  composition,  large  fonts  of  text  types 
on  the  bodies  of  12-  11-  10-  8-  and  6-point  are  indis- 
pensable. Types  on  9-  and  7-point  bodies,  not  often 
required,  may  be  provided  in  smaller  fonts.  Types 
on  smaller  bodies  and  of  still  smaller  fonts  will  be 
i  i 


2  A  book-house  needs  many  types 

needed  for  foot-  and  side-notes.  The  larger  bodies 
of  14-  18-  and  24-point  will  be  useful  for  the  texts 
of  quartos  and  larger  sizes,  or  as  letter  of  display. 
To  this  assortment  must  be  added  small  fonts  of 
two -line  capital  letters  for  title-pages  and  plain 
initials  varying  in  size  from  8-  to  72-point.  There 
must  be  also  types  of  bold  face  of  many  sizes,  plain 
and  condensed,  for  side-  or  subheadings ;  galleys, 
leads,  brass  rules,  racks,  stones,  chases,  wood  and 
metal  furniture,  and  many  labor-saving  devices. 

Nor  is  this  all.  To  meet  the  notions  of  different 
buyers,  there  should  be  at  least  one  complete  series 
of  old-style  type  or  some  other  variation  from  the 
standard  of  modern  roman  letter.  The  difficulty 
of  providing  for  unforeseen  requirements  presents 
itself  in  another  direction.  It  often  happens  that 
the  largest  fonts  have  been  insufficiently  provided 
with  one  or  more  characters.  Books  must  be  ex- 
pected that  will  call  for  an  increase  in  the  supply 
of  capitals,  italics,  figures,  points,  quadrats,  etc. 
Foreign  languages  and  scientific  treatises  will  re- 
quire accents  and  signs  that  are  not  supplied  with 
the  regular  font  of  type.  There  is  no  book-house, 
however  large  or  well  equipped,  that  does  not  have 
to  send  to  the  type-foundries  frequent  orders  for 
additions  to  large  fonts,  known  as  "  sorts." 

In  every  printing-house  supposed  to  be  amply 
equipped  for  miscellaneous  book  and  pamphlet 
work,  but  a  small  portion  of  its  types  can  be  kept 
in  daily  use.  Buyers'  tastes  are  very  capricious. 


Supply  must  exceed  demand  3 

During  one  week  nearly  all  the  compositors  may 
be  setting  10-point  old-style ;  in  another  week  they 
will  be  setting  11 -point  modern.  Material  must 
be  largely  in  excess  of  daily  needs,  and  the  master 
printer  must  be  accustomed  to  have  nine  tenths 
or  more  of  his  type  stand  idle  every  day.  It  should 
be  assumed  at  the  outset  that  in  a  fully  equipped 
book-house  one  thousand  dollars'  worth  of  printing- 
material  in  types,  presses,  and  their  appliances  will 
be  needed  to  keep  each  workman  in  reasonably 
steady  employment.  In  the  house  that  does  one 
branch  only  of  printing,  the  average  will  not  be  so 
high,  but  in  large  book-houses  it  often  exceeds  one 
thousand  dollars.  Yet  the  value  of  the  types  and 
their  appliances  handled  daily  by  each  piece-com- 
positor rarely  exceeds  one  hundred  dollars.  This 
is  largely  out  of  proportion  to  the  sum  invested, 
but  the  large  investment  is  not  to  be  evaded. 

Composition  can  be  economically  done  only  when 
there  are  types  enough  to  keep  the  compositors  in 
steady  employment.1  It  is  possible,  and  sometimes 
it  is  unavoidable  when  a  font  too  small  has  been 

1 A  printing-house  always  does  be  filled  with  additions  and  alter- 

work  to  disadvantage  when  com-  ations  that  keep  compositors  at 

position  has  to  be  suspended  for  correction  instead  of  composi- 

want  of  type  or  sorts,  but  suspen-  tion.     The  return  of  forms  from 

sions  are  frequent.     There  are  the  press-room  or  foundry  may 

many  occasions  for  this  suspen-  be  delayed  by  accident.     When 

sion.  Copy  may  be  sent  in  irregu-  the  font  of  type  is  small,  any  one 

larly,  and  in  too  small  quantity,  of    these  hindrances  will   stop 

Proofs  may  be  withheld  by  the  composition.    Every  contributor 

author  beyond  the  time  agreed  to  the  work  should  keep  pace 

on.     When  returned,  they  may  with  his  mates. 


4  Stands  wasteful  of  floor -space 

provided,  to  print  a  book  from  type  not  sufficient 
for  a  form  of  four  or  eight  pages ;  but  work  so 
hampered  is  always  done  expensively,  and  is  li.-iMe 
to  peculiar  faults.  Every  prosperous  book -office 
has  large  fonts  of  the  regular  text  types,  varying 
in  weight  from  two  thousand  to  twenty  thousand 
pounds. 

The  type  required  for  a  specified  number  of  pages 
has  been  tabulated,1  but  the  table  makes  no  allow- 
ance for  type  that  has  to  be  kept  standing  by  delays 
of  author.  To  estimate  the  weight  of  the  type  re- 
quired for  a  work,  begin  with  a  knowledge  of  the 
weight  of  the  type  set  up  in  one  day  by  the  com- 
positors employed  on  that  work.  Next  estimate 
the  time  that  may  be  taken  between  composition 
and  the  return  of  the  type  for  distribution.  This 
time  will  vary  from  two  days  to  two  months,  for 
proofs  sent  abroad  may  be  kept  out  much  longer. 
The  weight  of  the  composed  types  that  have  to  be 
kept  idle,  and  that  are  unavailable  for  any  other 
purpose,  must  be  determined.  Type  enough  must 
be  provided  to  keep  compositors  employed  for  a 
specified  number  of  days,  but  to  make  provision  for 
unexpected  hindrances,  the  supply  required  may  be 
much  greater  than  would  seem  necessary. 

The  most  noticeable  objects  in  a  composing-room 
are  not  the  types  but  the  type  cases,  exposed  breast- 
high.  The  stands  that  so  uphold  these  cases  are 
bulky  and  wasteful  of  floor-space,  for  cases  in  use 

l  See  Plain  Printing  Types,  p.  176. 


Description  of  the  stand  5 

should  have  abundant  light,  although  the  height 
of  an  upper  case  near  a  window  often  obstructs  the 
lighting  of  other  cases  in  the  middle  of  the  room. 
It  follows  that  some  compositors  may  have  to  work 
with  insufficient  light,  too  far  apart,  and  without 
needed  supervision  or  help  from  fellow- workmen. 
Italic,  accents,  or  display  letter  that  may  be  needed 
frequently,  as  well  as  the  galley  that  receives  com- 
posed type,  are  often  at  an  inconvenient  distance. 
Greater  compactness  is  needed  in  cities  where  room 
rent  and  artificial  lighting  are  serious  expenses. 
It  is  not  a  trivial  task  to  keep  materials  accessi- 
ble and  in  good  order,  but  in  no  workshop  does  the 
rule,  "A  place  for  everything,  and  everything  in 
its  place,"  call  for  more  rigorous  enforcement  than 
in  the  composing-room.  To  meet  the  conflicting 
requirements  of  closer  compactness  and  of  more 
space,  some  of  the  old  and  new  forms  of  printing- 
house  furniture  call  for  more  careful  examination. 

STANDS 

The  stand  (or  frame,  as  it  is  called  in  England)  is 
an  open  framework  of  pine  wood  made  to  support 
the  cases  of  type.  The  cross-pieces  at  the  top  that 
connect  the  front  with  the  back  are  at  different 
inclinations,  so  that  the  lower  case  may  be  at  a  low 
and  the  upper  case  at  a  higher  angle.  So  placed, 
the  compositor  can  see  and  reach  all  the  characters 
exposed  in  the  two  cases. 


The  common  double  stand 


Stands  are  made  of  two  sizes,  and  are  known  as 
double  and  single.  The  dimensions  of  the  double 
stand,  which  exposes  four  cases,  are :  length,  4  feet 
6  inches ;  width,  1  foot  10  inches ;  height  at  back, 
4  feet  6  inches;  height  in  front,  3  feet  6  inches. 
The  single  stand  that  exposes  two  cases  only,  about 
one  half  the  length  of  the  double,  is  not  so  common. 


Double  stand  of  usual  form,  containing  rack  for  cases.1 


l  To  break  the  habit  of  resting 
the  feet  on  the  lower  cross-piece 
of  the  stand,  and  to  prevent  the 
accumulation  of  pi  or  dust  on 
the  floor,  some  daily  newspaper 


houses  have  the  cases  rest  on 
strong  iron  bars  that  project 
from  the  side-walls.  Stands  are 
also  made  of  iron  pipe,  but  they 
are  most  used  in  news-houses. 


Unhandiness  of  the  common  stand         1 

Double  stands  are  oftenest  arranged  back  to  back 
between  windows,  so  that  four  compositors  can 
work  in  the  alley  so  made.  As  the  ordinary  stand 
has  no  provision  for  a  galley,  compositors  have 
to  empty  their  sticks  on  galleys  at  an  inconvenient 
distance.  It  is  often  without  a  drawer  for  the  safe- 
keeping of  copy  and  cuts.  It  accommodates  in  an 
interior  rack,  but  with  some  inconvenience  to  the 
compositor,  six  or  eight  cases  on  one  side  of  the 
frame,  but  leaves  unoccupied  a  large  space  on  the 
other  side,  and  a  broad  vacancy  under  the  project- 
ing upper  cases  at  the  top.  This  upward  projection 
at  the  back  seriously  obstructs  the  light  of  those 
who  work  at  a  distance.  Stands  have  been  made 
low  enough  for  the  compositor  to  work  seated,  but 
they  are  not  liked :  nearly  all  compositors  prefer  to 
stand  at  work. 

Double  stands  are  also  made  with  a  support  for  a 
galley  that  can  be  placed  inclined  upright  between 
the  two  exposed  lower  cases.  This  stand,  more  than 
five  feet  wide,  allows  the  space  below  to  be  utilized 
for  the  stowage  of  two  tiers  of  cases.  A  more  use- 
ful form  provides  for  an  inclined  galley-ledge  in  a 
sliding  drawer  (which  also  serves  for  copy  out  of 
use),  so  that  the  galley  can  be  drawn  out  and  put 
back  without  risk  of  piing  the  composition. 

A  much-approved  departure  from  the  old  form 
is  known  as  the  Polhemus  double  stand,1  which 
was  constructed  with  an  intent  to  have  the  back  as 

1  Designed  by  John  Polhemus,  New  York,  1872. 


8 


The  Polhemus  double  stand 


accessible  as  the  front.  Two  compositors  only  can 
work  in  the  alley  so  reduced.  The  exposed  cases, 
supported  by  iron  brackets,  are  placed  on  the  top  of 
a  broad  cabinet  rack  that  contains  thirty-six  cases, 
a  broad  standing  galley,  and  a  galley  -  closet  for 


Polhemus  double  stand,  panelled. 

Front  view  of  a  panelled  stand  with  galley-support  and  cases 
at  the  back.  The  lower  cases  rest  on  angled  supports 
that  allow  these  cases  to  be  inclined  backward. 

movable  galleys,  but  the  last-named  cases  and  gal- 
leys are  at  the  back  and  not  at  the  front  of  the 
workmen.  The  two  compositors  who  work  side 
by  side  can  empty  their  composed  type  on  the  gal- 
ley behind  them,  which  is  equally  serviceable  for 


Cases  upon  cabinets  are  preferred         9 

correction  or  storage  of  distributable  type.  Nor 
will  they  be  disturbed  at  work  if  a  third  compositor 
should  withdraw  a  case  from  the  rack. 

In  printing-houses  recently  equipped,  cabinets 
with  case-upholding  brackets  of  an  improved  form 
are  preferred  for  their  greater  compactness  and 


Bear  view  of  the  Polhemus  double  stand. 

cleanliness.  In  the  old-fashioned  double  stand  the 
few  cases  in  its  rack  below  were  widely  separated 
and  unavoidably  received  daily  deposits  of  dust 
and  paper  rubbish.  The  old  cases  were  held  in  their 
racks  by  supports  of  wood  that  suffered  wear  from 
continued  rubbing.  In  all  modern  type  cabinets  of 


10  Cabinet  stands  and  cases 

improved  construction,  steel  runs  fastened  to  the 
side  of  the  frame  with  countersunk  screws  are  bet- 
ter substitutes  for  runways  of  wood,  for  they  en- 
able the  cases  to  slide  with  more  ease  and  lessen 
their  wear.  The  steel  runs  have  the  greater  advan- 
tage of  enabling  the  maker-up  to  put  cases  closer 
together.  Some  forms  of  cabinets  of  double  size 
will  hold  forty  cases  in  their  type-racks. 

Another  form  of  case-rest  is  designed  to  enable 
two  compositors  to  work  facing  each  other,  over 
a  cabinet  rack  that  holds  eighteen  air-tight  cases. 
It  is  planned  to  be  placed  in  front  of  a  window. 
As  with  the  Polhemus  stand,  a  third  compositor 
can  have  unobstructed  access  to  ten  cases  under- 
neath while  the  two  compositors  are  at  work. 

CASES 

The  cases  on  top  of  the  cabinet  that  serves  as  a 
stand  are  held  in  proper  angle  by  iron  brackets. 
One  kind  of  iron  bracket  is  constructed  to  swing 
on  a  proper  rest,  so  that  it  can  be  tilted  upward 
and  enable  the  compositor  to  empty  his  composed 
type  on  the  galley  underneath  his  case,  or  to  make 
use  of  the  top  of  the  cabinet  for  the  safe-keeping 
of  copy  out  of  use. 

The  case  provided  for  ordinary  composition  is  a 
shallow  tray  of  wood  16j  inches  wide,  32£  inches 
long,  and  1  inch  deep,  divided  by  thin  wood  par- 
titions into  separate  compartments,  or  boxes,  as 


The  ordinary  upper  case  11 

called  by  compositors,  so  that  there  shall  be  a  box 
for  every  character  of  the  font.  For  the  composi- 
tion of  ordinary  copy  in  roman  type  are  needed  two 


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Upper  case,  usual  arrangement. 

cases,  respectively  known  as  the  upper  and  the 
lower  case,  so  called  from  the  positions  they  have  on 
the  stand.  The  upper  case  has  ninety-eight  boxes, 
which  contain  capitals,  small  capitals,  and  minor 
sorts  that  are  seldom  used ;  the  lower  case  has  fifty- 
four  boxes,  which  contain  the  lower-case  charac- 
ters, figures,  points,  spaces,  and  quadrats. 

The  arrangement  of  the  characters  in  the  upper 
boxes  of  the  upper  case,  as  shown  in  this  diagram, 
is  not  uniform  in  every  city,  or  even  in  every  house. 
Some  houses  adhere  to  an  old  fashion  of  putting 
the  large  capitals  on  the  left  side,  but  the  greatest 
irregularity  is  in  the  freakish  placing  of  fractions, 
reference-marks,  braces,  and  dashes,  that  are  trans- 
posed by  the  chance  piece -compositor  to  suit  his 


12       The  upper  case  has  too  many  boxes 

own  notion  of  convenience.  A  strange  compositor 
who  begins  to  work  on  a  case  that  has  been  laid  or 
altered  by  a  new  scheme  has  to  relearn  the  loca- 


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Lower  case,  usual  arrangement. 

tioii  of  the  minor  sorts.  As  these  sorts  are  rarely 
used  and  are  out  of  easy  reach  and  inspection,  he 
learns  the  new  locations  imperfectly  and  distributes 
incorrectly.  In  many  offices  the  three  upper  rows 
of  the  upper  case  are  nests  of  dust  and  pi. 

It  would  be  of  mutual  advantage  to  compositor 
and  employer  if  these  three  upper  rows  were  abol- 
ished, and  the  sorts  assigned  to  them  were  kept  in 
a  separate  case,  as  is  done  with  accents  and  signs. 
Book  copy  rarely  calls  for  any  of  these  sorts.  The 
reference-marks  have  been  supplanted  by  superior 
figures,  and  the  sectional  braces  by  solid  braces. 
Fractions  are  rarely  needed,  not  often  enough  to 
justify  the  space  they  take.  If  frequency  of  use 
could  determine  the  admission  of  extra  sorts  in  the 


Attachments  to  the  case  13 

capital  case,  italic  should  have  preference,  but  no 
compositor  of  experience  would  favor  this  arrange- 
ment. The  inconvenience  suffered  in  seeking  italic, 
fractions,  or  signs  from  a  distant  case  is  not  so  great 
as  that  endured  in  looking  for  misplaced  sorts  in 
dusty  and  inconvenient  boxes.  If  the  lower  case 
were  made  longer,  wider,  and  not  so  high,  then  the 
capitals  and  small  capitals  could  be  put  therein  and 
be  brought  within  easier  reach.  Not  the  least  of 
the  advantages  to  be  gained  by  the  use  of  one  case 
only  would  be  the  increased  diffusion  of  light  in  the 
darker  parts  of  a  composing-room. 

The  only  practical  case  now  made  to  remedy  this 
old  mistake  is  the  "patent  hinged  case"— so  called 
because  the  upper  case  contains  but  five  long  tiers 
of  boxes,  instead  of  seven  as  is  customary.  The 
suppression  of  these  two  upper  tiers  shortens  its 
height,  and  favors  the  increased  diffusion  of  light. 
The  two  cases  so  connected  by  the  hinge  can  slide 
on  the  same  cleat  in  the  ordinary  case-rack. 

Any  unusual  sort  needed  in  composition  can  be 
put  in  a  small  annex  box  of  tinned  iron,  which  may 
easily  be  attached  to  any  large  box,  and  as  readily 
be  removed. 

The  boxes  of  an  ordinary  upper  case  and  lower 
case  are  supposed  to  be  arranged  so  that  the  sorts 
most  used  shall  be  nearest  to,  and  those  least  used 
farthest  from,  the  reach  of  the  compositor.  It  is  also 
supposed  that  the  unequal  sizes  of  the  boxes  are  in 
proportion  to  the  unequal  use  of  the  characters 


14       Irregularities  in  the  lay  of  the  case 

they  contain.     These  suppositions  are  not  entirely 
correct.    The  boxes  have  been  made  of  whole,  half-, 
and  quarter-size  more  to  suit  the  convenience  of  a 
case-maker  than  to  provide 
for   the   intelligent   appor- 
tionment devised  by  type- 
founders.  The  most  needed 
sorts  are  fairly  placed,  but 
the  justifying   spaces   are 
scattered  in  very  inconve- 
Annex  box.  nient  positions.1 

The  upper  case  and  lower 

case,  when  put  upon  the  stand,  expose  a  surface  of 
about  seven  square  feet,  which  is  too  large  a  sur- 
face to  be  covered  by  the  travel  of  the  compositor's 


1  Illustrations  of  early  com- 
posing-rooms show  that  the  first 
printers  tried  to  put  all  the  types 
needed  for  the  text  in  one  large 
case.  They  laid  the  types  in  al- 
phabetical order,  beginning  at 
the  upper  left-hand  corner,  and 
ever  since  we  have  adhered  to 
one  feature  of  this  early  usage. 
Our  modern  lower  case  has  in 
the  first  row  of  large  boxes  the 
letters  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  fi,  ff ,  g.  The 
second  row  has  1,  m,  n,  o,  y,  p ; 
the  third  row  has  v,  u,  t,  r.  The 
types  of  a,  i,  s,  h,  w,  r,  seem  to 
have  been  put  out  of  the  old 
order  to  bring  them  in  easier 
reach.  Printers  of  northern 
Europe,  who  use  text  types  with- 
out small  capitals,  prefer  a  case 
in  one  piece,  but  in  England  and 
America  the  case  in  two  parts 


has  always  had  most  favor.  The 
"  lay  "  of  the  upper  case  has  re- 
ceived many  changes.  In  his 
Mechanick  Exercises  of  1683, 
Moxon  presents  an  upper  case 
with  the  large  capitals  in  the 
upper  left  corner,  and  with  fig- 
ures in  the  lower  left  corner. 
It  has  no  small  capitals.  The 
boxes  that  would  otherwise  be 
vacant  are  filled  with  signs.  In 
his  treatise  of  1890  on  Printing, 
Jacobi  gives  a  diagram  in  which 
the  capitals  are  put  in  the  upper 
left  corner.  In  his  Practical 
Printing  of  1892,  Southward 
shows  a  model  case  with  capi- 
tals at  the  right  and  small  capi- 
tals at  the  left  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  upper  case.  In  all  the 
English  schemes,  figures  are 
stowed  in  the  upper  case. 


Space  boxes  inconveniently  placed        15 

hand,  for  he  who  sets  five  thousand  ems  of  solid 
type  in  one  day  has  to  make  his  hand  travel  about 
six  or  seven  miles.  The  hand -travel  in  distribu- 
tion is  about  one  third  more. 

The  more  distant  boxes  on  the  left  side  of  the 
ordinary  upper  case  are  nearly  thirty  inches  from 
the  stick  in  the  hand  of  the  compositor,  and  in  a 
direction  in  which  the  right  arm  has  not  free  play. 
To  reach  too  distant  boxes,  the  compositor  of  low 
stature  has  to  move  his  feet,  at  some  inconvenience 
and  loss  in  performance. 

A  case  that  will  shorten  the  travel  of  the  hand 
should  materially  increase  the  performance  of  the 
compositor.  With  this  end  in  view,  a  smaller  case, 
known  as  the  E/ooker.1  was  introduced,  which  is 
about  one  fifth  smaller  than  the  ordinary  case.  It 
is  used  to  some  extent  in  daily  newspaper  offices,  but 
is  rarely  found  in  book -houses.  It  holds  letter 
enough  for  brevier  and  all  smaller  sizes,  but  not 
enough  for  a  day's  work  with  larger  types. 

The  accepted  form  of  lower  case  has  many  seri- 
ous defects.  Facilities  for  justification  and  even 
spacing  have  not  been  considered.  The  boxes  for 
spaces  are  too  far  apart,  when  they  should  be  clus- 
tered. Nor  are  the  space  boxes  of  proper  size.  In 
every  font  of  letter  the  f our-to-em  spaces  furnished 
are  about  the  same  weight  as  that  of  the  letter  i, 
yet  i  has  a  full  box  in  easier  reach,  while  the  four- 
to-em  space  in  a  quarter-box  is  not  so  accessible. 

1  Invented  by  Thomas  N.  Rooker,  of  New  York,  about  1858. 


16  Analysis  of  a  font  of  type 

The  most  needed  three-to-em  space  is  about  of  the 
same  thickness  as  the  lower-case  t,  but  each  sort 
occupies  a  box  of  the  same  size,  although  the  type- 
founders furnish  in  weight  one  half  more  of  the 
three-to-em  space  than  of  t.  Nor  are  the  boxes 
for  other  characters  adapted  to  supply.  Points 
like  ;  :  !  ?  and  types  of  j,  X,  and  Z,  averaging  about 
ten  ounces  each,  have  separate  boxes  as  large  as 
that  given  to  the  four-to-em  space  that  is  provided 
in  a  weight  of  nearly  ten  pounds.  Some  of  the 
small  boxes  could  be  contracted  without  inconve- 
nience, and  the  space  saved  be  given  to  boxes  that 
are  now  too  small. 

The  difference  between  space  required  and  space 
allowed  for  each  sort  will  be  more  plain  after  a  study 
of  the  scheme  made  by  the  Bruce  Type  Foundry  1 
for  a  font  of  four  hundred  and  twenty  pounds : 

Lower-case  sorts.            lb.       oz.  Italic.  ib.       oz. 

Lower-case  letters  .     .  209      7  Lower-case  letters  .     .  28     12 

Points 11       8      Capitals 8       2 

Figures,  etc 16       0 

Spaces  2. 33      6  Roman  accents   ...  3 

Quadrats 50       4  Italic  accents.     ...  1       7 

Leaders 6      8 

Upper-case  sorts. 

Reference-marks     ..18  Total  420 

Braces 1       6 

Dagheg  3       2      rially  disturb    the   percentages 

Fractions  1     14  tbat  have  been  sPecifled  in  the 

Capitals.     .'    .'     .'     .'     .'     34     12  table      Every  new  analysis  will 

Small  capitals     ...       7     10  show  decided  inequality. 

2  The    spaces    and    quadrats 

1  The    schemes    of    different  constitute  more  than  one  fourth 

type-founders  are    not   exactly  of  the  weight  of  the  lower-case 

alike,  but  their  trivial  differences  sorts.     The  weight  of  the  justi- 

in  apportionment  will  not  mate-  fying  spaces  is  about  one  sixth. 


Analysis  of  a  font  of  type  17 

The  proportion  that  each  class  of  sorts  bears  to  the 
entire  weight  of  the  font  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing percentages : 

Lower-case     .     .  .76       Italic 09 

Upper-case     .     .  .12       Accents,  etc.  .     .  .03 

As  the  weight  of  the  upper-case  sorts  is  but  twelve 
per  cent,  of  that  of  the  complete  font,  and  as  its 
minor  sorts  are  in  small  request,  no  great  advantage 
could  be  had  by  altering  the  size  of  the  boxes  or  by 
changing  the  location  of  their  sorts.  A  readjust- 
ment of  real  value  must  be  made  in  the  lower  case, 
which  takes  in  seventy-six  per  cent,  of  the  font. 


Large  boxes. 

c  . 

Wei 

7 

firfcfc 

required. 
2  20 

.  Quarter-boxes. 

Weight. 
Ib.     oz. 
9      4 

Capacity 
required. 
2  91 

U.      .      .      . 

7 

H 

2  36 

4    10 

1  46 

d,i,r,m,each 

10 

3.15 

m   . 

2 

.63 

s  .    . 

1? 

3  78 

2 

63 

|  space  .     .    . 

18 

8 

5.83 

1 

.33 

t  

12 

8 

3.95 

12 

.24 

h     .    .    .    . 

13 

4 

4.12 

12 

.24 

n.    . 

15 

H 

4  90 

1 

4 

06 

o  

15 

8 

4.90 

J 

4 

06 

a      ... 

15 

H 

'   4  90 

o 

9 

63 

quadrats    \ 

37 

11.64 

2  

2 
1     12 

.63 
.55 

e  

?S 

8 

7.41 

3     A    c     each 

1      8 

1  44 

6,  7,  8,  9  each 

1      4 

1.60 

Half-boxes. 

q  

1      8 

.48 

V       .      .      .      . 

3 

.95 

H  

1      8 

.48 

4 

1.26 

k      .    .    .    . 

1      8 

.48 

h 

/| 

1  26 

1 

12 

24 

y,  p,  f  ,  g,  each 

4 

8 

1.42 

x  

12 

.24 

I 

5 

1.57 

m 

12 

.24 

• 

5 

4 

1.65 

ff     .    .    .    . 

1 

.33 

w     .    .     .    . 

6 

8 

2.05 

ffi     .     .    .    . 

1 

.33 

8 

2.52 

fl  

12 

.24 

2 

18       The  case  has  many  neglected  boxes 

The  lower  case  comprehends  fourteen  whole,  eleven 
half-  and  twenty-eight  quarter-boxes,  and  to  them 
must  be  added  the  e  box,  which  is  always  of  largest 
size.  The  stowage  capacity  of  each  box,  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  entire  lower  case,  is  given 
in  these  percentages :  whole  box,  3.57  +  ;  half -box, 
1.78+  5  quarter-box,  0.89 +  . 

The  boxes  for  C,  U,  d,  i,  m,  r  are  too  large ;  those 
for  h,  t,  n,  O,  and  a  are  too  small.  The  four-to-em 
spaces  should  have  a  box  three  times  as  large ;  the 
five-to-em  spaces,  a  box  nearly  twice  as  large. 

For  the  half -boxes  the  want  of  proportion  is  not 
so  marked.  The  V  could  be  put  in  a  smaller  box ;  b 
and  ,  could  have  a  box  one  fourth  smaller ;  the  W 
and  the  en  quadrat  are  the  only  sorts  that  call  for 
a  trifling  enlargement  of  their  boxes. 

The  preceding  tables  show  that  a  simplification 
of  the  lower  case  is  needed,  and  that  the  upper  case 
is  also  in  fault.  Fractions,  signs,  and  reference- 
marks,  that  rarely  appear  in  book- work,  have  posi- 
tions too  prominent  at  the  top  of  a  case.  It  is  to 
make  room  for  these  sorts  that  the  case  is  made  high 
and  the  lighting  of  a  room  is  obstructed.  Small 
capitals  have  been  discarded  in  many  books  and 
newspapers.  The  only  series  in  steady  request  are 
the  capitals,  but  they  could  be  attached  to  the  lower 
case,  as  will  be  shown  upon  another  page.  Small 
capitals,  signs,  fractions,  braces,  and  abbreviations 
could  be  relaid  in  the  ordinary  capital  case,  with 
other  sorts  in  occasional  request,  and  would  be  as 


A  lower  case  containing  capitals        19 

available  in  a  rack  under  the  compositor's  stand. 
If  his  copy  called  for  these  sorts  in  excess,  they 
would  be  as  accessible  there  as  they  now  are,  out 
of  easy  reach.  The  lower  case  should  have  more 
room  for  spaces,  and  these  spaces  should  be  to- 
gether. Points  of  punctuation  and  double  letters 
should  also  be  in  groups.  To  save  useless  travel 
of  the  hand,  and  to  make  a  more  convenient  lay  of 
the  sorts,  this  plan  of  a  new  lower  case  is  offered : 


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Proposed  arrangement  of  lower  case  with  capitals. 

The  length  of  this  proposed  lower  case  is  that  of 
the  old  form,  32J  inches,  so  that  it  can  be  stowed  in 
the  ordinary  racks ;  its  width  is  one  ninth  greater, 
or  about  18|  inches.  The  addition  of  a  tier  of  quar- 
ter-boxes at  the  side  reduces  the  capacity  of  the  full 
boxes  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch ;  but  they  will  be 
large  enough  for  all  bodies  below  12-point. 


20          Lightens  work  of  even  spacing 

If  this  form  of  case  were  in  general  use,  the  stand 
on  which  it  rests  would  be  narrower  at  least  four 
inches,  and  the  highest  point  of  the  case  upon  that 
stand  would  be  about  six  inches  lower  than  it  is 
now,  to  the  saving  of  space  and  the  improvement 
of  the  lighting  of  the  room. 

This  diagram  is  offered,  not  as  a  correctly  appor- 
tioned case,  but  as  an  approximation  that  may  lead 
to  practical  improvements  hereafter.  A  case  that 
exactly  apportions  the  space  for  type  would  be  too 
great  and  too  expensive  an  innovation.  The  force 
of  habit  that  has  kept  unchanged  for  three  cen- 
turies the  sizes  and  relative  positions  of  the  boxes 
for  the  leading  sorts  has  to  be  respected.  Changes 
have  been  proposed  only  where  change  seemed  of 
real  importance.  Some  boxes  have  been  enlarged 
and  others  contracted,  but  there  is  no  serious  irreg- 
ularity in  the  partitions  that  would  increase  the 
labor  of  case-making,  and  no  changes  in  boxes  that 
would  make  the  case  confusing  to  the  compositor. 

The  greatest  changes  are  where  there  is  greatest 
need — in  the  sizes  and  positions  of  the  space  boxes. 
The  weight  of  the  en  quadrat  and  the  justifying 
spaces  is  more  than  one  sixth  the  combined  weight 
of  all  the  lower-case  sorts,  but  the  room  that  is 
provided  in  the  present  form  of  case  is  only  about 
one  half  of  what  is  needed.  The  en  quadrat  is 
twelve  inches  distant  in  one  direction  and  the  four- 
and  five-to-em  spaces  ten  inches  distant  in  another 
from  the  composing-stick  in  the  compositor's  hand. 


Accessible  spaces  increase  performance    21 

As  justifying  and  even  spacing  take  up  nearly  as 
much  time  as  the  picking  up  of  type,  it  follows  that 
the  labor  of  reaching  for  spaces  should  be  lessened, 
and  that  the  spaces,  which  are  repeatedly  changed 
in  justification  and  are  more  handled  than  any  other 
sort,  should  be  clustered  near  the  compositor's  stick. 
As  the  spaces  are  laid  in  the  new  schemes,  the  com- 
positor can  select  the  en  quadrat  for  wide-leaded 
work,  or  the  four-to-em  space  for  solid  work,  with 
as  much  facility  as  he  now  selects  the  three-to-em 
space.  Large  boxes  and  a  central  position  of  the 
spaces  will  be  other  aids  to  cleaner  distribution. 

The  two-  and  three -em  quadrats  are  put  to  the 
left,  but  the  new  position  will  be  found  quite  as 
convenient  as  the  old  one.  Few  sorts  are  more  ir- 
regularly used  than  the  large  quadrats.  They  are 
often  needed  in  open  composition,  but  on  ordinary 
plain  descriptive  matter  they  do  not  deserve  the 
accessible  position  they  now  have. 

The  quarter-boxes  for  the  capitals  are  one  eighth 
smaller  than  those  of  the  upper  case,  but  they  are 
more  accessible  at  the  ends  of  the  lower  case.  The 
half -boxes  and  whole  boxes  are  of  the  old  capacity. 
This  form  of  case  should  enable  the  compositor  to 
increase  his  performance  seven  per  cent. 

To  those  who  wish  small  capitals  exposed,  a  new 
arrangement  is  offered  in  the  diagram  on  the  next 
page.  This  case  is  wider  and  longer  (24J  x  32 J 
inches),  but  it  will  contain  for  each  box  as  many 
types  as  can  be  put  in  the  regular  cases. 


22        A  lower  case  with  all  the  capitals 

For  ordinary  composition  the  old-fashioned  stands 
and  cases  are  sufficiently  serviceable,  but  they  are 
not  helpful  enough  when  the  compositor  has  copy 
that  calls  for  two  or  more  sizes  of  roman  and  italic, 


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This  case  has  one  hundred  and  twenty-one  boxes.  To  make 
these  boxes  of  the  usual  size  and  in  similar  proportion  the 
case  should  be  20  X  42  inches,  obviously  too  large  for  con- 
venient handling.  To  keep  it  of  the  regulation  length  of 
32^  inches,  so  that  it  could  be  put  on  the  ordinary  stand 
and  in  ordinary  case-racks,  it  must  be  about  one  half  wider, 
or  24^  x  32^  inches. 

or  for  accents  or  display  letter.  For  every  change 
of  body  or  of  face,  for  italic,  display  letter,  or  ac- 
cents, the  compositor  has  to  leave  his  stand  and  set 
the  type  from  a  case  at  a  distance. 


Compactness  of  the  dictionary  stand     23 

To  those  who  need  many  sorts  in  ready  reach,  an 
illustration  is  shown  on  following  pages  of  a  form 
of  stand  made  for  the  composition  of  the  Century 
dictionary.  For  this  work  the  compositor  needed 
twelve  cases  readily  accessible : 

Brevier,  one  upper  case  and  one  lower  case. 
Brevier  italic,  one  capital  case. 
Accents  for  brevier,  one  capital  case. 
Brevier  antique,  for  side-heads,  one  job  case. 
Nonpareil,  one  upper  case  and  one  lower  case. 
Nonpareil  italic,  one  capital  case. 
Accents  and  signs  for  nonpareil,  one  capital  case. 
Nonpareil  antique,  for  subheads,  one  job  case. 
Irregular  sorts,  two  cases. 

To  save  space  and  get  the  desired  compactness,  the 
Rooker  case,  of  14  x  28  inches,  was  selected  as  large 
enough  for  a  day's  work  011  the  sizes  of  brevier  and 
nonpareil.  Two  more  Rooker  cases  at  right  angles 
were  put  on  each  side,  tilted  inward  as  shown  in 
the  diagrams.  The  compositor,  who  stands  before 
these  cases,  can  readily  reach  all  the  boxes  of  the 
four  cases,  except  those  at  the  extreme  outermost 
corners.  A  long -armed  compositor  can  reach  all 
without  swaying  his  body.  The  illustrations  show 
the  brevier  upper  and  lower  cases  in  the  usual  posi- 
tion ( L  and  K  in  the  diagram),  with  the  accents  to 
the  extreme  left  ( M )  and  the  italic  to  the  extreme 
right  (I). 

The  framework  of  the  stand  below  the  extreme 
right  and  left  is  utilized  by  adding  thereto  racks 


26        Usefulness  of  the  dictionary  stand 

with  supports,  so  that  cases  least  used  can  be  put 
in  sidewise,  and  yet  be  kept  within  easy  reach.  A 
swinging  side-frame,  firmJy  hinged,  is  attached  on 
each  side,  and  with  supports  parallel  to  those  in  the 
stand.  These  side-frames  are  kept  firmly  in  position 
by  the  swinging  iron  bars  T  and  U.  When  these 
bars  are  locked,  the  cases  on  each  side  can  be  drawn 
out  at  full  length,  exposing  every  box  to  view  and 
touch.  The  compositor  is  in  the  centre  of  three 
sides  of  a  small  square,  and  can  pick  out  any  type 
he  wants  from  about  eight  hundred  boxes  without 
leaving  his  frame,  and  for  most  of  them  without 
change  of  position.  He  can  select  accents,  or  words 
of  italic  or  in  display  letter,  without  removing  the 
case  from  its  rack.  When  the  lower  cases  in  the 
side-racks  are  not  needed,  the  swinging  side-frame 
can  be  put  back  as  shown  in  diagram  1.  To  pre- 
vent the  cluttering  up  of  other  stands,  and  to  save 
needless  travel,  the  galley  is  put  on  an  inclined 
plane  in  a  drawer  under  the  case  in  front  of  the 
compositor.  When  he  wishes  to  empty  composed 
matter  on  galley,  he  pulls  out  the  drawer,  unloads 
his  stick,  and  then  shoves  in  the  drawer,  where  the 
galley  interferes  with  no  other  composition,  and  is 
not  so  liable  to  accident  as  in  the  old  position  on 
an  exposed  stand. 

Two  of  the  job  cases  were  made  with  capitals  to 
the  left,  and  two  with  capitals  to  the  right.  This 
keeps  the  most  used  division  of  the  lower  case 
nearest  to  reach  on  right-  and  left-hand  sides. 


A  new  arrangement  of  spaces 


27 


The  roman  cases  have  the  most  needed  spaces  and 
en  quadrats  directly  under  the  compositor's  hand. 
This  arrangement  is  made  by  putting  the  en-quad- 
rat box  next  to  the  three-to-em-space  box  on  the 
other  side  of  the  broad  bar,  and  by  putting  the  f  our- 
and  five-to-em-space  and  hair-space  boxes  next  to 
the  three-to-em-space  box.  Not  many  other  boxes 
have  to  be  disturbed  for  their  readjustment.  This 


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clustering  of  the  spaces  saves  time  j  it  is  an  aid  to 
exact  work  and  is  much  approved  by  all  composi- 
tors. These  stands  and  cases  cost  but  little  more 
than  those  of  the  old  form.  They  are  as  econom- 
ical of  space  as  they  are  helpful  to  compositors. 
Thirty  compositors  employed  on  one  dictionary  or 
book  of  like  nature  can  work  in  better  light,  more 
pleasantly  and  efficiently,  in  a  space  of  one  thousand 
square  feet  than  they  could  do  in  a  space  twice  as 
large  from  many  cases  spread  out  after  the  old  plan. 


28 


Two  schemes  of  job  case 


Small  fonts  of  italic,  or  of  display  tj^pe  that  has  no 
small  capitals  or  minor  sorts,  are  frequently  placed 
in  one  case  of  a  form  known  as  the  job  case. 


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To  meet  different  needs,  these  job  cases  are  made 
to  many  plans.  One  form  holds  capitals,  small  cap- 
itals, and  lower-case;  another  has  enlarged  boxes 
for  capitals  and  contracted  boxes  for  lower-case ; 


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The  triple  case  29 

another  has  large  square  boxes  for  figures  only,  of 
the  two  faces  needed  in  some  table-work. 

Petty  fonts  of  display  types  on  small  bodies  are 
seldom  needed  in  the  book-house,  but  they  can  be 


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compactly  laid  in  the  triple  case,  which  will  be  of 
service  also  for  the  proper  placing  of  accents,  reg- 
ular or  unusual,  astronomical  and  other  signs,  and 
minor  sorts  of  all  kinds.  Every  book-house  needs 
a  few  vacant  boxes  for  irregular  sorts. 

In  one  division  of  the  triple  case  can  be  put  the 
regular  accents  for  roman  capitals  ;  in  another,  the 
accents  for  small  capitals  j  and  in  the  third  division 
accents  for  lower-case  types.  For  italic  capital  and 
lower-case  accents  another  triple  case  should  be 
provided.  In  all  the  cases  the  accents  should  be 
laid  with  system :  the  same  vowel  in  boxes  on  a 
horizontal  line,  the  same  accents  in  boxes  on  a 
vertical  line.  A  print  of  each  accent  pasted  on  its 


30       Accent  cases  for  roman  and  italic 

proper  box  will  be  helpful  to  the  new  compositor, 
and  a  safeguard  against  reckless  distribution.     In 


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the  vacant  boxes  can  be  put  peculiar  accents  not 
often  needed,  like  the  longs  and  shorts  of  school- 
books,  and  the  marked  vowels  of  Danish,  Swedish, 
and  other  languages.  The  tendency  of  modern  au- 
thorship is  to  insist  on  a  nicer  attention  to  accents. 


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Improved  strength  of  modern  cases       31 

Tray  cases  are  now  made  to  be  used  as  nests  for 
smaller  cases  of  one-fourth  size,  which  can  be  re- 
moved from  the  tray  and  be  placed  temporarily  on 
the  upper  case  or  the  imposing-stone.  They  are 
used  for  brass  rule,  but  will  be  equally  serviceable, 
when  divided  into  proper  compartments,  for  the 
signs  of  algebra  and  scientific  work.  Sections  still 
smaller  (5x8  and  7  X  7£  inches,  outside)  are  fur- 
nished by  founders  for  leaders,  electrotype  guards, 
and  the  other  characters 
occasionally  needed. 

A  great  defect  in  cases 
of  old  manufacture  was 
the  splitting  or  warping 
of  wood  that  was  not 
seasoned.  Some  modern 
cases  have  bottom  pieces 
of  three  thin  layers  of 
glued  wood  that  have 
been  made  one  solid  piece 
under  strong  pressure.  The  fibres  of  each  layer 
cross  proximate  layers  at  an  angle,  thereby  making 
an  effective  safeguard  against  warping  or  cracking. 
Other  makers  attach  to  side-frames  or  to  cases  a 
new  form  of  runner  that  enables  the  case  to  slide 
easily  in  its  rack  and  prevents  needless  friction  and 
wear.  The  cases  now  made  are  as  strong  as  they 
are  light:  the  corners  of  the  boxes  are  strength- 
ened by  a  long  pin  and  clamps  of  thin  brass  that 
securely  bind  the  woodwork. 


Box-fastener. 


32  The  tray  case 

Large  types  and  borders  that  cannot  be  properly 
stowed  in  the  ordinary  capital  case  are  often  needed 
in  a  book-house  for  the  proper  composition  of  title- 
pages  and  publishers'  circulars.  For  this  need  a 


Tray  case  with  movable  partitions. 

tray  case  is  provided  with  movable  partitions  fit- 
ting into  the  slotted  sides,  that  may  be  used  with 
advantage  for  all  sizes  greater  than  24-point. 

The  tray  case  without  compartments  or  slotted 
sides  is  of  service  as  a  nest  in  holding  the  quarter 
or  smaller  sections  containing  brass  rules,  figures, 
leaders,  quadrats,  or  any  kind  of  sort  used  in  ex- 
cess that  has  to  be  carried  to  the  compositor's  case. 
The  sections  are  divided  in  compartments  of  differ- 
ent sizes  for  the  needs  of  special  work. 

Electrotyped  illustrations  that  vary  in  size  from 
an  inch  square  to  fifty  square  inches,  often  furnished 
in  bewildering  profusion,  are  difficult  to  keep  in 
order ;  nor  are  half-tone  cuts  easily  identified  when 


Cases  for  electrotyped  illustrations      33 

they  have  been  made  accessible.     A  cabinet  case 
for  cuts,  with  index,  is  needed  in  all  printing-houses. 


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These  cabinets  are  of  full,  three-quarter,  and  two- 
third  sizes,  and  contain  many  air-tight  tray  cases. 
Each  case  has  adjustable  partitions  that  keep  to- 
gether cuts  of  the  same  class.  It  is  also  labelled 
with  a  number  that  refers  to  its  written  description 
in  the  index  book  furnished  with  the  cabinet.1 


i  An  equally  useful  safeguard 
against  confusion  can  be  made 
by  numbering,  in  consecutive 
order,  each  cut  as  soon  as  it  is 
received,  by  proving  it,  and  by 
pasting  the  proof  with  its  num- 
ber in  regular  order  in  a  scrap- 
book.  Very  small  cuts,  less  than 
one  inch  square,  often  made  for 
dictionaries  and  the  catalogues 
of  manufacturers,  can  be  stowed 
with  safety  and  compactness  in 
cardboard  envelopes  with  box 
sides  and  of  uniform  size.  When 
3 


each  envelope  has  been  filled,  a 
proof  of  all  the  cuts  therein 
should  be  pasted  on  the  inside  of 
its  flap,  and  then  the  envelope 
can  be  marked  in  ink  on  the  ex- 
posed side  with  the  numbers  of 
the  pages  from  which  the  cuts 
have  been  taken  —  as,  Diction- 
ary, 17-32.  So  treated,  they  can 
be  handled  easily,  piled  one  on 
top  of  another,  or  be  laid  in  order 
in  a  tray  case.  They  are  protected 
from  dust,  and  can  be  found 
without  troublesome  search. 


34 


An  exposed  case  for  quadrats  and  spaces 

In  all  printing-houses  it  is 
a  rule  that  spaces  and  quad- 
rats must  not  be  distributed 
in  cabinet  cases  that  hold 
petty  fonts.  The  scatter- 
ing of  -these  sorts  in  many 
boxes,  where  they  are  found 
with  difficulty,  gives  need- 
less trouble.  To  prevent 
this  annoyance,  a  form  of 
quadrat  case  has  been  made 
to  rest  upon  the  top  of  the 
cabinet  case  or  galley-rack. 
It  is  intended  to  contain  the 
quadrats  and  spaces  for  all 
ordinary  lines  of  display  ex- 
posed in  a  position  where 
justification  is  facilitated. 

Other  ingenious  designs 
of  cases  are  to  be  had.  A 
lead  case  for  1-  2-  3-  and  6- 
point  bodies,  for  very  short 
leads  that  cannot  be  stowed 
in  the  ordinary  lead-rack, 
is  a  valuable  addition  to  a 
printing-house  that  does  al- 
gebraic work  or  other  nice 
justification.  The  leads  so 
cut  can  be  well  placed  in 
a  brass-rule  case  of  four 


Quadrat  case.     Other  forms  of  case      35 

sections.     High  and  low  leads  and  each  thickness 
of  lead  should  be  kept  apart  in  a  separate  section. 


1 

| 

| 

48  pt. 

36  pt. 

24  pt. 

18  pt. 

12  pt. 

9pt. 

6pt. 

The  common  form  of  quadrat  case. 

To  save  floor-space,  cases  of  half-,  two-third,  and 
three-quarter  sizes  are  provided  for  job-printers, 
who  need,  many  small  fonts  of  display  type  that  are 
infrequently  used.  Job  cases  are  made  from  many 
plans  for  capitals  only,  and  for  capital  and  lower- 
case letters  combined,  as  in  the  regular  job  case  of 
full  size,  and  they  are  always  fitted  to  accompany- 
ing racks  that  are  usually  known  as  cabinets. 
Petty  cabinets  are  not  desirable  in  a  book-house. 
Cases  of  usual  form  that  can  be  transferred  from 
one  rack  to  another,  and  that  permit  all  similar 
styles  of  type  to  be  grouped  together,  will  be  found 
of  greater  service. 

The  orderly  arrangement  of  a  composing-room 
is  largely  prevented  by  irregularities  in  the  shape 
of  its  cases,  stands,  racks,  stones,  and  closets  that 


36 


Case-rack  of  wood 


cannot  be  combined  or  neatly  fitted  to  one  another. 
In  the  fitting  up  of  a  new  office  the  stands,  racks, 
and  closets  provided  should  be  of  the  full  size,  half- 
size,  or  double  size  of  the  ordinary  double  frame,  so 
that  each  piece  of  furniture  can  be  readily  fitted  to 
another  piece  when  any  new  arrangement  is  desired. 


CASE-RACKS 

Case -racks  are  required 
for  the  stowage  of  cases 
not  in  frequent  use.  In 
all  large  printing-houses 
that  keep  in  stock  one 
thousand  or  more  cases, 
the  case-racks  occupy  too 
much  room.  Sometimes 
they  are  placed  against 
a  dead  wall,  and  some- 
times in  the  interior  of 
a  dark  room.  To  econo- 
mize a  needed  space,  they 
are  often  made  six,  seven, 
or  eight  feet  high.  At 
these  too  high  elevations 
the  case-rack  obstructs  light,  and  the  cases  are  dif- 
ficult to  handle  and  are  liable  to  be  pied.  It  is  better 
practice  to  limit  their  height  to  five  feet. 

The  case-racks  of  display  type  should  have  side- 
frames,  with  supports  that  project  about  four  or 


Case-rack  of  wood. 


Case-rack  of  pipe-iron  37 

more  inches  from  the  frame.  This  extension  will 
enable  the  compositor  to  expose  the  case  and  set  a 
line  therefrom  without  removing  it  from  the  rack. 


Case-rack  of  pipe-iron. 

Each  case  should  be  numbered  with  a  large  read- 
able figure,  and  the  duplicate  of  this  figure  should 
be  pasted  on  the  side  of  the  case-rack  where  the 
case  belongs.  This  method  will  be  a  safeguard 
against  misplacement,  and  of  real  service  to  the 


38  Smaller  sizes  of  case 

compositor  who  begins  to  select  type  or  distribute 
in  a  strange  printing-house. 

Many  of  the  cases  here  described  are  in  com- 
mon use,  but  other  plans  are  required  for  peculiar 
work.  For  the  cases  needed  in  the  composition  of 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  music,  see  diagrams  on  later 
pages  under  these  headings.  Labor-saving  brass 
rule,  borders  of  brass  rule  for  pages  of  different 
size,  space  rule,  braces,  dashes,  leaders,  figures, 
and  short  leads  of  different  thicknesses  need  cases 
with  unequal  compartments,  that  are  often  made 
to  order.  The  quarter  case  that  nests  in  the  tray 
case  is  the  most  generally  useful  form  of  small  case, 
for  it  can  be  removed  from  its  tray  and  placed 
within  easy  reach  of  the  compositor  without  dis- 
turbing his  work  on  the  regular  form  of  lower  case. 
Small  cases  are  also  made  to  the  sizes  of  7f  X  15£ 
and  7  X  7£  inches,  with  compartments  of  unequal 
space  for  the  orderly  keeping  of  short  leads,  leaders, 
and  irregular  sorts  in  occasional  request. 


ISAIAH    THOMAS 


II 


EQUIPMENT 


Galleys  and  galley-racks  .  .  .  Compositors'  tools  .  .  .  Brass 
rules  and  cases  for  labor-saving  rule  .  .  .  Dashes  and  braces 
Leads  .  .  .  Furniture  of  wood  and  metal .  .  .  Furniture-racks 
Quotations  .  .  .  Electrotype  guards 

GALLEYS    AND    GALLEY-RACKS 


HE  galley  is  a  tray  of  wood  or 
brass  with  a  raised  rim  on  two 
or  three  sides,  made  to  hold 
composed  type,  for  which  ser- 
vice it  is  kept  in  an  inclined 
position.  The  galley  of  wood, 
which  has  its  rim  at  the  head 
and  on  one  side  only,  is  frail  and  seldom  used. 
The  galley  of  brass,  with  a  rim  at  the  head  and  on 
each  side,  is  stronger  and  much  more  durable ;  it 
holds  the  type  securely,  and  allows  it  to  be  locked 
up  and  proved  on  a  press.  Galleys  are  sometimes 


40 


Different  kinds  of  galley 


entirely  of  brass,  but  they  oftener  have  wood  rims 
lined  with  brass.     The  length  in  common  use  is 


Single  galley  of  brass. 

twenty-four  inches.  If  less  than  five  inches  wide 
it  is  known  as  a  single  galley ;  if  over  six  inches 
wide,  as  a  double  galley;  if  short  and  wide  it  is 


Galley  of  wood. 

called  a  quarto  galley.  For  making  up  and  tying 
up  pages  a  short  galley  of  brass  with  a  low  rim  is 
preferred.  The  slice  galley,  usually  of  quarto  shape 
and  of  wood,  has  no  attached  rim  to  the  slice  or  tray 
on  which  the  type  is  placed.  The  rim  is  made  by 


Slice  galley,  partly  opened. 

the  sides  of  the  open  box  in  which  the  slice  is  kept. 
The  slice  has  a  handle  at  the  narrow  end,  which  en- 
ables it  to  be  easily  removed,  with  its  tied-up  type, 
from  its  box.  The  slice  galley  is  preferred  for  the 


Galley-racks  of  old  form  41 

making  up  of  pages  or  jobs  that  are  too  large  to  be 
seized  by  the  hands,  but  that  can  be  launched  on 
the  stone  after  they  have  been  tied  up. 

Galley-racks  are  temporary  rests  for  the  galleys 
while  the  type  on  them  waits  for  the  action  of  the 


Galley-rack  with 
swinging  arms. 


Galley-rack  with 
fixed  arms. 


reader  or  maker-up.  The  form 'frequently  used  in 
a  small  office  is  a  series  of  hanging  arms  attached 
to  a  dead  wall.  Sometimes  the  arms  are  of  wood, 
sometimes  of  pipe-iron,  or  with  joints,  so  that  each 
arm  can  be  folded  back ;  but  all  galley-racks  of  this 


42  New  form  of  galley -rack 

kind  are  wasteful  of  space,  and  invite  the  piing  or 
squabbling  of  the  type  on  the  galley. 

In  all  houses  that  have  many  galleys  in  regular 
use  the  form  of  galley-rack  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration  is  more  satisfactory.  It  is  a 
series  of  inclined  shelves,  that  permit  the  galleys 


Shelf  rack  for  galleys. 

to  be  compactly  stowed  lengthwise,  without  risk 
of  damage.  When  each  galley  is  numbered,  and  a 
corresponding  number  is  affixed  to  its  shelf,  and 
this  number  is  marked  on  the  proof,  there  need  be 
no  difficulty  in  finding  any  galley  in  a  large  rack. 

The  standing  galley  is  an  inclined  tray,  firmly 
attached  to  the  top  of  a  cabinet  case  or  low  case- 
rack,  made  with  longitudinal  divisions  to  the  width 
of  the  measures  in  greatest  use.  It  holds  standing 


Standing  galley  with  racks 


43 


matter  that  may  be  reimposed  and  used,  or  dead 
matter  intended  for  distribution,  and  should  be 
placed  in  a  good  light.  The  racks  below  this  stand- 
ing galley  are  often  used  for  stowing  letter-boards, 
upon  which  tied-up  pages  or  jobs  of  dead  matter 
can  be  placed.  These  letter-boards  should  have  a 


Standing  galley  with  racks. 


raised  rim  at  the  extreme  end  to  protect  the  matter 
from  being  jostled  off  when  the  board  is  suddenly 
pulled  out.  In  the  small  job-office  a  part  of  the 
standing  galley  is  often  fitted  up  with  separating 
partitions  for  short  leads  and  brass  rules. 


44      Composing-sticks  of  different  designs 


COMPOSITORS'     TOOLS 

The  composing-stick  is  a  small  open  tray  of  iron 
with  raised  ledges  on  two  sides,  and  an  adjustable 
knee-piece  within  that  slides  to  and  fro  and  can  be 
adapted  to  the  width  of  any  measure.1  It  is  made 
in  many  styles,  differing  chiefly  in  the  mechanism 


Composing-stick,  common  form. 

by  which  the  adjustable  knee  is  made  fast.  The 
common  form  has  a  screw-bolt  that  passes  through 
the  back  ledge  and  an  opening  in  the  movable  knee. 
The  Grover  stick,  which  tightens  the  knee  with  its 
spring  clamp  and  lever,  is  preferred  by  many  job- 

/r\ 

\\ 


Wooden  job-stick. 

compositors,  for  it  enables  them  quickly  to  readjust 
the  stick  to  any  width  of  measure. 

The  form  of  stick  preferred  in  many  newspaper 

1  The  sticks  of  the  early  print-  although  the  material  has  been 

ers  were  rude  channels  of  wood,  changed.  Sticks  of  wood  of  large 

made  to  hold  but  two  or  three  size  are  now  made  only  for  the 

lines.     The  name  has  survived,  large  type  of  posting-bills. 


Tools  for  correcting  45 

houses  has  the  knee  firmly  fastened  to  the  bottom 
plate,  so  that  the  measure  can  never  be  unsettled. 
Another  form  of  stick  has  two  adjustable  knees, 
one  lapping  over  the  other,  and  so  arranged  that 
the  matter  of  two  measures  can  be  set  in  the  same 
stick — one  for  text  and  one  for  side-notes.1 


Newspaper  stick  of  unalterable  measure. 

The  stick  needs  care.  If  dropped  upon  the  floor, 
or  allowed  to  rust,  or  if  the  knee  is  strained  by  over- 
tight  spacing,  it  is  liable  to  give  bad  justification. 

The  bodkin  is 
a  straight  awl, 
firmly  fixed  in 
a  handle,  which 
is  used  for  withdrawing  a  faulty  type  from  the 
form.  Bodkins  are  also  made  hooked  or  bent  at 
the  point.  The  spring  bodkin,  that  shuts  up  be- 
tween tweezers,  is  a  more  useful  tool. 


Bodkin. 


1  French  composing-sticks  are 
shallow,  holding  about  five  lines 
of  pica.  American  and  British 
sticks  hold  ten  or  twelve  lines 
of  pica.  It  is  claimed  that  the 


shallow  stick  does  not  fatigue 
the  compositor  by  its  weight, 
and  enables  the  left  hand  to 
follow  the  right  in  every  move- 
ment of  picking  up  type. 


46  Brass  rules 

The  tweezers,  that  enable  a  compositor  to  pick  up 
and  arrange  types  in  the  narrow  columns  of  a  table, 


Tweezers. 

is  a  serviceable  tool  for  withdrawing  type  from  a 
galley  or  an  unlocked  form  on  the  stone. 

The  composing-rule  is  a  movable  strip  of  smooth 
metal,  type-high,  of  the  length  of  the  measure  re- 
quired, against  which  the  compositor  places  the 
types  that  he  puts  in  the  stick.  The  smooth  metal 
allows  an  easy  movement  and  adjustment  of  the 

type  when  it  is  caught 
by  the  thumb.  The  rule 
is  also  used  for  empty- 
ing the  contents  of  the 

stick  on  the  galley,  as  a 
Composing-rule.  V     ,, 

support  for  type  in  the 

act  of  distribution,  and  for  dividing  and  moving 
matter  in  the  process  of  making  up.  The  compos- 
ing-rules of  job-  and  book-printers,  who  have  to  set 
type  to  many  measures,  are  usually  of  brass ;  those 
of  news-compositors  are  oftener  of  steel. 

BRASS    RULES 

Brass  rules,  cut  from  hard-rolled  sheet-brass  and 
planed  to  the  standard  height  of  type,  are  usually 
furnished  to  the  printer  in  strips  two  feet  long. 


Mules  needed  in  book- work 


They  are  rolled  to  conform 
to  the  bodies  of  the  point 
system,  and  can  be  had  of 
all  thicknesses  from  1  to  12 
points.  Different  kinds  of 
face  are  made,  but  each  one 
is  designated  by  the  arbi- 
trary number  of  the  type- 
founder. Printers  designate 
them  not  so  often  by  num- 
ber as  by  the  names  of  sin- 
gle, parallel,  double,  triple, 
dotted,  hyphened,  waved, 
spurred,  and  fancy. 

The  faces  most  used  in 
book-work  are  commonly 
known  as  single,  parallel, 
double,  and  dotted.  The 
waved,  triple,  and  ornamen- 
tal rules  are  never  used  in 
plain  composition. 

These  faces  are  enough  for 
all  ordinary  book- work.  The 
hair-line  and  the  flat-faced 
should  be  in  abundant  sup- 
ply, for  they  will  be  most 
needed,  but  the  waved  and 
dotted  rules  may  be  of  occa- 
sional service.  When  a  rule 
border  is  planned  to  consist 


Face 


Foot 


Single. 


Parallel. 


Double. 


Dotted. 


Waved. 


Bevelled  or  Flat-faced. 


48        Machines  for  cutting  and  mitring 

of  two  parallel  lines,  it  is  better  to  have  these  lines 
cut  upon  one  thick  body,  for  the  value  of  the  time 
given  to  the  mitring  and  proper  joining  of  rules  on 
two  thin  bodies  is  usually  greater  than  the  price  of 
the  thick  rule. 

Brass  rules,  neatly  cut  to  graduated  lengths  and 
arranged  in  convenient  cases,  are  furnished  by  all 
type-founders  under  the  name  of  labor-saving  rule, 
but  some  printers  find  it  expedient  to  buy  rule  in 
strips  and  cut  it,  as  occasion  requires,  to  suitable 


Mitr'ing-machine. 

lengths.  The  tinman's  shears  and  file,  or  the  saw 
and  mitre-box,  which  were  once  the  only  tools  in 
use,  are  now  supplanted  by  machines  that  cut  the 
rule  without  bending,  and  plane  the  cut  edges  with 
smoothness  and  accuracy.  There  are  also  machines 


Labor-saving  rules  49 

provided  with  fine  saws  for  cutting  thicker  bodies, 
and  with  mitring  adjustments  for  any  angle. 

Rules  of  prescribed  length  should  first  be  cut  by 
the  gauge  a  trifle  longer  than  seems  needed,  and 
afterward  trimmed  down  by  the  side-plane  of  the 
ordinary  machine.  Mitred  rules  should  be  tested 
in  a  true  and  square  stick  before  they  are  used,  for 
it  sometimes  happens  that  a  set  of  rules  may  be  cut 
of  true  length  as  to  face,  but  over-long  as  to  foot. 
A  slight  deviation  will  prevent  a  true  joint.  Side- 
planing  must  always  be  done  quickly  and  with  force. 
If  done  feebly  and  timidly  upon  a  weak  machine, 
the  rule  may  spring  or  the  plane  may  jump  and 
produce  an  uneven  cnt.  The  face  of  the  rule  should 
be  first  met  by  the  plane ;  if  the  foot  first  meets  the 
plane,  a  rough  edge  may  be  left  on  the  face.  Most 
mitring-machines  have  dials  accurately  marked  for 
different  angles.  In  cutting  a  set  of  mitred  rules 
for  a  border,  the  gauge  must  be  set  alternately  at 
equal  distances  from  the  right-angled  line  on  the 
dial.  The  machine  is  to  be  preferred  that  firmly 
holds  the  rule,  so  that  it  will  not  spring. 

A  miscellaneous  stock  of  brass  rules  is  difficult 
to  keep  in  order.  The  labor-saving  rules  furnished 
by  the  type-founder  are  usually  cut  to  ens  of  pica 
for  all  the  smaller  lengths ;  but  any  house  may  need 
rules  of  intermediate  size,  and  the  irregular  lengths 
should  be  kept  apart  in  a  separate  case. 

Labor-saving  rule  cases  are  made  to  many  plans. 
A  diagram  that  follows  shows  a  rule  case  made  to 
4 


50  Cases  for  labor-saving  rules 

hold  graduated  lengths  from  one  to  fifty  ems  of 
nonpareil.  Some  of  the  small  pieces  in  the  small 
boxes  are  mitred  for  right  and  left  joints,  so  that 


Ti^Ki^^i^ra^i^ 

R  nJim 

2*|  2 

1 

li 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

2 

2? 

36 

35 

34 

33 

32 

23 

14 

31 

24 
13 

30 

25 
12 

29 

28 

27 
10 

3 

3i 

4 

4i 

5 

5i 

I 

21 

19 
18 

20 



17 

21 
16 

22 
15 

26 
11 

6 

6i 

o3i 

43 

42 

41 

40 

39 

38 

37 

7 

71 

2 

o3o 

8 

8* 

2 

L.O 

2i 

R    0 

9 

9z 

A 

?1 

The  ordinary  rule  case. 

they  can  be  attached  to  large  pieces  in  the  larger 
boxes  to  form  any  length  that  may  be  desired. 
With  these  graduated  pieces  the  rule  border  can 
be  quickly  formed  without  the  delay  of  mitring. 


A  rule  case  in  four  sections. 


Cases  for  labor-saving  rules  51 

The  rules  in  the  following  case  are  arranged  in 
progressive  order,  so  that  any  size  can  be  found 
readily.  The  strips  that  divide  the  compartments 
are  sunk  in  some  places  to  allow  the  rule  to  be 
seized  by  the  fingers,  and  raised  in  others  to  pre- 
vent its  bruising  from  another  overlying  case.  As 


Improved  case  for  brass  rule. 

brass  rules  of  plain  faces  are  needed  now  more 
than  flowers  or  borders  of  type-metal,  they  should 
be  kept  in  ample  assortment  and  in  liberal  supply. 
It  is  also  better  that  each  thickness  and  face  of 
rule  should  be  kept  apart  in  separate  cases.  Faces 
that  are  easily  distinguished  may  be  kept  together, 
but  single  and  parallel  rule  should  never  be  mixed. 


52         Rules  to  be  selected  with  system 

That  rule  case  should  be  preferred  in  which  cut 
rules  can  be  laid  vertically,  so  that  all  rules  rest  on 
the  same  base.  When  rules  are  so  laid,  the  little 
differences  of  length  can  be  readily  noted. 

It  is  bad  practice  to  expose  rules  upon  a  stand, 
where  they  may  be  bruised  by  overlying  galleys. 
Brass  is  harder  than  type-metal,  but  the  edges  and 
hair-lines  are  easily  damaged,  and  this  damage  is 
always  noticeable  in  print.  The  counters  or  chan- 
nels of  parallel  and  double  rule  are  usually  cut  at 
a  sharp  angle  that  makes  the  lighter  line  weak  and 
easily  bruised. 

To  insure  uniform  height  and  true  joints,  all  ad- 
ditions made  to  stock  rules  should  be  bought  from 
the  same  foundry.  Rules  from  another  foundry 
may  not  be  cut  to  the  same  height  or  set  of  face. 
The  faces  selected  should  be  few  in  number.  The 
bodies  of  1,  2,  4,  and  6  points  are  enough  for  ordi- 
nary work.  A  large  supply  of  a  few  faces  is  more 
useful  than  a  small  supply  of  many  faces. 

As  with  leads,  rules  must  be  selected  with  sys- 
tem, to  prevent  confusion  and  needless  expenditure. 
Rules  often  have  to  be  pieced,  joined,  or  mitred,  and 
it  is  important  that  the  new  pieces  should  be  of  the 
same  face  and  body.  When  purchases  of  many 
faces  of  rule  are  made  without  system  from  differ- 
ent makers,  the  rules  so  bought  may  differ  in  height 
and  face,  and  be  combined  with  difficulty. 

For  ordinary  letterpress  work  the  2-point  rule  of 
hair-line  face  will  be  found  of  most  usefulness  for 


Special  rules  needed  for  electrotyping     53 

separate  columns  in  tables.  The  rule  borders  for 
these  tables  should  be  about  4  or  6  points  thick, 
with  their  thick  lines  flush  to  one  side,  in  this  way : 


m 


The  thick  line  flush  at  one  side  permits  neat  joints 
at  the  corners  of  a  border  without  mitring,  and  also 
allows  an  exact  connection  with  the  cross-rules  of 
tables.  For  the  rules  that  divide  the  columns  of  a 
page,  or  that  follow  a  running  title,  or  that  precede 
foot-notes,  the  thicker  body  of  6-point  with  blunt 
bevel  should  be  preferred. 

Flat-faced  rules,  much  used  for  table-work,  should 
be  flush  with  the  body  on  each  side,  but  for  special 
conditions  they  may  be  made  with  a  bevel  on  one 
side  only. 

For  electrotype  work  the  thin  bodies  of  hair-line 
brass  rule  are  objectionable  in  all  places  where  they 
are  not  protected  by  near-by  lines  of  type.  Their 
sharp-sloped  shoulders  make  a  narrow  impress  in 
the  moulding  wax,  which  impress  is  often  bent  or 
thickened  when  the  moulding  plate  is  lifted  from 
the  form  of  type.  The  impress  may  be  too  narrow 
to  get  its  needed  share  of  blacklead,  or  even  of 
soldering  tin.  It  often  happens  that  the  backing 
metal  of  an  electrotype  plate  does  not  entirely  fill 


54         Imperfections  of  some  thin  rules 

the  impress  of  a  moulded  rule.  It  follows  that  the 
rule  in  this  unprotected  spot  bends  or  gives  way 
under  the  pressure  of  the  printing-press,  making  a 
crooked  or  thickened  line.  This  fault  is  common. 
It  is  rare  to  see  in  a  book  printed  from  electrotype 
plates  all  its  hair-line  rule  borders  of  uniform 
appearance,  or  exposed  cross -rules  that  are  of 
uniform  straightness  and  thickness.  This  fault,  too 
often  laid  to  the  pressman,  is  really  caused  by  the 
thinness  and  sharpness  of  the  brass  rules.  Brass 
rules  with  hair-line,  intended  for  electrotype  work, 
should  have  blunt  angles  and  high  shoulders. 

Labor-saving  rule,  accurately  cut  to  graduated 
lengths,  is  of  advantage  in  the  composition  of  ordi- 
nary work  that  has  to  be  done  in  haste,  but  it  should 
be  generously  provided  and  carefully  handled.  Un- 
der the  kindest  usage  the  corners  will  soon  round  or 
wear  down,  making  a  white  line  or  a  blemish  where 
it  should  show  a  perfect  joint.  For  very  exact  work 
it  is  safer  to  use  rules  of  one  piece  only. 

Borders  of  hair-line  rule  on  2-point  body  for  in- 
closing large  pages  of  type  should  be  avoided,  for 
they  make  needless  delay  and  trouble  in  composi- 
tion and  presswork.  Around  small  pages  in  small 
forms  it  is  possible  to  print  thin  rules  f airly ;  on 
large  pages  and  in  large  forms  they  are  always  un- 
satisfactory. For  a  border  line  the  face  of  1-point 
thickness  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  hair-line  rule. 

The  border  on  each  side  of  a  page  should  always 
be  single  and  perfect  pieces  of  a  thick  body.  When 


Dashes,  braces,  metal  rules  55 

the  rule  is  thin,  it  is  rarely  mitred  for  a  border  with 
accuracy.  Even  if  accurately  mitred,  the  corners 
may  not  join.  A  slight  crook  in  the  chase-bars,  or 
slight  unevenness  in  justification  or  locking  up,  will 
prevent  the  joint.  This  difficulty  is  so  common  that 
few  publishers  order  pages  electrotyped  with  the 
rule  borders  on  the  plates.  They  prefer  to  attach 
the  rules  to  the  patent  blocks,  on  which  the  rules 
cannot  be  disconnected  by  any  ordinary  accident. 

DASHES    AND    BRACES 

Brass  dashes  are  made  to  a  variety  of  faces,  but  the 
ones  in  most  request  are  the  single,  parallel,  and 
double.     The  ornamental 
faces,  formerly  known  as    _=_^====== 

French  dashes,  are  now  ^=^^^=^^= 
not  allowed  in  book- work. 

Brass  braces  are  made  and  sold  in  sets,  usually 
on  8-point  body,  varying  in  length  from  four  to 
twenty  ems,  but  they  are  sel- 
dom used  in  book-work.  A 
lighter  face,  as  used  in  alge- 
bra, is  now  preferred. 

Metal  rules,  made  from 
solid  type-metal  and  cast  in 
moulds  to  the  height  of  type, 
are  rarely  used,  for  the  metal 
is  unavoidably  soft  and  may  be  porous,  and  the  rule 
made  therefrom  must  be  weak  and  liable  to  injury. 


56  Space-rules  and  leads 

Space-rules  are  short  pieces  of  metal  rule  of  hair- 
line face,  on  2-point  body,  cast  to  even  ems  and 
ens  of  the  regular  bodies,  but  chiefly  to 
bodies  of  6-  8- 10- 12-  and  18-point.    They 
are  made  for  narrow  columns  in  which 
short  cross-rules  are  needed.     Sometimes 
^^^_     they  are  used,  but  unwisely,  in  place  of 
-  vertical  brass  rules.     Space-rules  cast  to 
Space-     the  length  of  even  ems  of  the  irregular 
rules>      bodies  of  7-  9-  11-  and  14-point  are  made 
to  order  only.     Two  or  more  bodies  of  the   same 
face  in  the  same  house  should  have  a  distinct  nick 
on  each  body  and  be  kept  apart  in  separate  cases. 


LEADS 

Leads  are  thin  blanks  of  soft  type-metal  cast  or 
rolled  of  many  widths  from  1 -point  to  6-point  thick, 
in  strips  eighteen  inches  long.  They  are  used  to 
widen  lines  of  type,  to  extend  composed  matter,  and 
to  make  print  more  readable.  They  are  made  high 
and  low :  the  high  leads  that  come  up  to  the  shoul- 
der of  type  are  used  only  for  electrotype  or  ste- 
reotype composition  j  the  low  leads,  as  high  as  low 
spaces,  are  used  for  letterpress  work.  The  thinner 
leads,  necessarily  of  high  price,  are  rarely  needed. 
Leads  of  2-point  thickness  are  most  used,  but  leads 
of  3-  and  4-point  are  common.  Intermediate  sizes 
should  be  avoided,  for  they  are  not  readily  identi- 
fied by  the  ordinary  compositor.  If  mixed  with 


Illustrations  of  leads  57 

approximate  sizes,  they  are  not  easily  separated  and 
may  make  great  trouble.1 

For  ordinary  book-work  the  bodies  of  1-  2-  3- 
and  4-point  will  be  found  ample.  The  1-point  lead, 
rarely  used  for  a  text,  is  always  of  service  in  justi- 
fying proximate  bodies.  Leads  of  different  thick- 
nesses can  be  doubled  to  make  blanks  of  an}^  other 

Thickness  of  a  three-to-pica  lead. 

Thickness  of  a  four-to-pica  lead. 

Thickness  of  a  six-to-pica  lead. 
Thickness  of  an  eight-to-pica  lead. 

Thickness  of  a  ten-to-pica  lead. 
Thickness  of  a  twelve-to-pica  lead. 

width.  One  thousand  pounds  of  leads  so  selected 
will  be  of  more  general  service  than  two  thousand 
pounds  not  selected  with  system.2 

In  planning  a  composing-room,  a  proper  system 
should  be  devised  for  keeping  leads  in  good  order. 
For  the  smaller  measures  leads  have  to  be  provided 
in  lengths  graduated  by  quarter-picas,  for  middle 

i  Leads  of  irregular  thickness,  Under  no  circumstances  should 
as  of  five-  seven-  and  nine-to-  they  be  made  a  part  of  the  corn- 
pica,  should  have  special  nicks  nion  stock. 

cut  on  their  edges  with  a  saw,  2  Very  thick  leads,  commonly 

so  that  they  can  be  identified  at  called  slugs,  on  6-  8-  10-  and  12- 

a  glance.     When  the  work  con-  point  bodies,  are  useful  as  white 

taining  these  irregular  leads  has  lines  and  foot-lines  in  making 

been  finished,  the  leads  should  up.     They  are  readily  made  on 

be  papered  up  and  put  away,  the  linotype  machine. 


58  System  in  storage  of  leads 

measures  by  half -picas,  for  broad  measures  by  full 
picas.  In  large  printing-houses  the  lengths  most 
needed  are  furnished  in  weights  of  thousands  of 
pounds.  To  keep  a  large  supply  of  leads  on  stand- 
ing galleys  is  wasteful  of  useful  room  j  to  put  them 
pell-mell  in  boxes  or  bins  invites  damage  and  dis- 
order. A  common  form  is  a  stout  upright  closet, 
divided  in  pigeonholes  for  many  sizes,  appropriately 
marked  with  the  length  of  each  lead. 

Another  method  is  to  provide  a  series  of  boxes 
on  the  top  of  a  low  table  or  cabinet  case.     Small 


Lead-cutter. 

collections  of  leads  may  be  put  in  partitions  upon 
a  standing  galley,  making  each  partition  exactly 
the  width  of  the  lead  for  which  it  is  adapted.  They 
can  be  kept  there  in  good  order  with  little  trouble. 
Separate  galleys  or  racks  should  be  used  for  differ- 
ent thicknesses  of  leads.  A  very  large  quantity  of 
any  measure  in  frequent  use  may  be  piled  neatly  in 
a  type-box  or  bin,  but  it  is  impracticable  so  to  treat 
all  the  leads  for  the  numerous  measures  of  a  large 


Lead-cutters  59 

printing-house.     They  should  be  exposed  together 
and  made  accessible. 

Lead-cutters  are  made  of  many  patterns:  some 
are  for  cutting  leads  only,  others  for  cutting  leads 
and  brass  rules.  Cutters  with  knives  that  meet  at 
a  wide  angle  bend  the  lead  or  rule.  The  best  lead- 
cutters  have  an  upper  knife  that  descends  at  a  slight 
inclination,  cutting  like  a  chisel.  A  lead-cutter  in- 


Eule-  and  lead-cutter. 

tended  to  cut  brass  rule  of  even  moderate  thickness 
should  have  a  compound  lever  as  well  as  a  strong 
knife.  Slugs  and  rules  of  6-point  and  larger  bodies 
are  more  neatly  cut  with  a  circular  saw. 


60  Suggested  form  of  lead-rack 

As  leads  have  to  be  provided  for  all  measures,  of 
many  thicknesses,  and  of  stereotype  and  letter- 
press height,  they  should  be  ordered  with  system, 
to  prevent  needless  and  wasteful  expenditure. 


A  new  form  of  lead-rack. 


The  weight  of  leads  in  all  the  widths  required  for  a 
book-house  working  in  many  measures  should  be 
at  least  one  half  the  weight  of  the  text  type.  In 
some  houses  the  leads  weigh  more  than  the  type. 


Description  of  its  divisions 


61 


IIS 

2Z 
tc 


The    figures   in   these    dia- 
grams define  the  length  of 
the  leads  in  nonpareil  ems. 
Two  tiers  or  channels  are 
provided  for  the  leads  that 
are   more  frequently  used. 
As  each  tier  is  made  exactly 
of  the  length  of  the  lead  it 
is  to  contain,  the  leads,  when 
stowed    properly,   will    be 
flush  at  their  outward  ex- 
posure. This  treatment  pre- 
vents misplacement  in  dis- 
tribution :  a  lead  too  long 
will  project  and  be  noticed ; 
a  lead   too   short   will   be 
quickly  perceived  by  its  in- 
dention. 

Leads  should  never  be 
pieced.  It  is  practicable  to 
make  up  many  new  mea- 
sures by  a  combination  of 


p 

.2 

I 


62  Furniture  of  wood  and  metal 

two  or  more  leads,  but  the  work  so  done  is  usually 
imperfect,  and  the  value  of  the  time  lost  in  piecing 
is  more  than  that  of  the  new  leads.  For  all  broad 
measures  it  is  better  to  have  leads  of  proper  width 
in  one  piece  of  metal. 

Full-length  leads  can  be  doubled  with  safety,  but 
treble -leading  is  never  to  be  recommended,  for  it 
makes  composition  spongy,  and  tends  to  the  hang- 
ing or  bowing  of  the  ends  of  lines  on  a  wide  page. 

When  new  leads  are  bought  to  be  added  to  a 
previous  supply  of  old  leads,  the  new  leads  should 
be  used  together  on  separate  pages  or  columns.  If 
the  new  are  mixed  with  the  old,  there  will  be  irreg- 
ularities in  the  make-up  and  register.  Old  leads 
are  always  a  trifle  thicker  from  accretions  of  dust. 

To  prevent  the  sponginess  of  treble-leading,  two- 
to-pica  leads,  or  nonpareil  slugs  as  they  are  of tener 
called,  may  be  used.  Slugs  of  still  thicker  bodies 
are  also  useful  for  foot -lines  and  for  the  division- 
line  of  double-columned  octavos. 


FURNITURE    OF    WOOD    AND    METAL 

Furniture  is  the  name  given  to  all  the  low  pieces 
of  wood  or  type-metal  that  have  to  be  used  for  the 
larger  blanks  in  or  about  a  page  of  type  or  within 
the  chase  prepared  for  a  form  of  type.  Cherry 
wood  is  most  common ;  pine  is  used  only  for  post- 
ers and  coarse  work.  Metal  is  preferred  for  open 
pages  and  work  of  exact  register. 


Eeglet  and  side-sticks  63 

Wood  furniture  is  usually  furnished  in  lengths  of 
three  feet,  and  of  many  widths  from  two  to  twelve 
picas.  For  all  work  printed  from  type,  furniture 
is  made  to  the  height  of  the  low  quadrat,  or  about 
five  eighths  of  an  inch.  Electrotypers  prefer  the 
height  of  seven  eighths  inch. 

Reglet  is  the  name  given  to  thin  wood  furniture 
less  than  two  picas  wide.    The  widths  of  pica,  non- 


A  form  of  type  in  chase,  fitted  with  furniture. 

A,  head-bolts;  B,  gutters;  c,  side-sticks;  D,  foot-sticks; 
E,  quoins;  F,  chase;  G,  short  cross-bar;  H,  dovetails; 
I,  slots  for  cross-bar;  K  and  L,  chase  furniture. 

pareil,  and  great  primer  are  in  greatest  request,  but 

other  sizes  can  be  had  of  the  thickness  of  any  body. 

Side-sticks,  or  bevelled  furniture,  are  the  inclined 

planes  that  secure  forms  of  type  after  they  have 


64  Storage  of  furniture 

been  tightened  by  quoins.  For  large  and  heavy 
forms  of  type,  iron  side-sticks  are  preferred.  The 
pieces  between  pages  1-8,  2-7,  3-6,  4-5,  are  often 
called  gutters ; 1  those  between  1-4,  2-3,  6-7,  5-8, 
are  the  head-bolts ;  the  inclined  planes  at  the  foot 
and  sides  of  pages  are  the  bevels  or  foot-  and  side- 
sticks;  the  blunt  wedges  between  the  chase  and 
the  bevels  are  the  quoins. 

Furniture  is  more  difficult  than  leads  to  keep  in 
order.  The  usual  practice  of  the  small  office  is  to 
buy  furniture  in  yard  lengths  ;  to  allow  compositors 
to  cut  it  up  without  system  as  new  lengths  may 
be  needed,  and  finally  to  throw  it,  when  out  of  use, 
pell-mell  into  an  open  drawer.  This  disregard  of 
system  wastes  time  and  material.  Larger  offices 
usually  provide  a  series  of  deep  pigeonholes  against 
a  dead  wall,  with  a  separate  compartment  for  each 
regular  length  of  furniture  or  reglet.  For  irregular 
lengths  special  compartments  are  seldom  provided, 
and  these  odd  lengths  are  too  often  put  in  wrong 
places  and  make  confusion. 

The  storage  of  furniture  flatwise  in  pigeonholes 
or  in  exposed  pockets  of  uniform  depth  invites  dis- 
order. Each  pocket  should  be  exactly  the  depth  of 
the  furniture  made  for  it,  so  that  each  piece  will 
reach  the  end  of  the  pocket  and  yet  be  flush  with 
the  face.  When  the  pockets  are  of  uniform  depth 

i  Gutters  are  so  called  because  ink  from  the  inking  roller  that 
they  have  a  rounded  channel  passes  over  the  form.  In  a  few 
planed  in  the  middle  of  the  wood,  houses  the  thin  strips  near  cross- 
to  prevent  it  from  receiving  bars  are  called  gutters. 


Plan  of  furniture-rack  65 

the  shorter  pieces  cannot  be  seen  and  the  longer 
pieces  are  annoying  projections.  The  open  pocket 
has  another  disadvantage  in  making  no  separation 


Furniture-rack. 

for  furniture  and  reglets  of  diif erent  widths :  to  get 
several  pieces  of  one  width  the  compositor  has  to 
assort  the  contents  of  the  pocket.  Long  pieces  of 
reglet  should  not  be  mixed  with  long  furniture. 
5 


66  Plan  of  reglet-rack 

The  surface  area  of  the  blank  space  that  is  often 
required  inside  the  chase  is  usually  as  much  as  and 
sometimes  more  than  that  required  for  type.  For 
this  reason  there  should  be  provided  at  least  as  much 
surface  area  of  furniture  as  of  type.  It  is  equally 
important  that  the  furniture  should  be  of  gradu- 
ated sizes,  in  proper  places,  and  readily  accessible. 
A  compositor  should  be  able  to  select  from  office 
stock  any  length  or  any  width  of  regular  furniture 
as  easily  as  he  selects  a  needed  size  or  sort  of  type. 
It  is  as  bad  practice  to  require  him  to  cut  furniture 
for  ordinary  needs  as  to  have  him  cut  leads. 

For  the  more  orderly  stowage  of  graduated  wood 
furniture,  the  furniture-rack  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion on  previous  page  is  provided  by  printers'  sup- 
ply houses.  It  is  made  to  hold  five  hundred  pieces 
of  furniture.  There  are  eight  pieces  of  each  length 
of  the  widths  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  eight,  and 
ten  picas.  There  are  eight  lengths  between  twelve 
and  sixty  picas,  which  are  graduated  six  picas  apart. 
Another  style  of  rack  is  made  to  hold  lengths  from 
sixty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  picas.  It  is  an 
improvement  on  the  disorderly  furniture-drawer, 
yet  it  is  imperfect,  for  every  printing-house  needs 
furniture  of  lengths  but  one  pica  apart.  Even  if 
the  intermediate  pieces  are  not  supplied  at  once,  a 
place  should  be  provided  for  the  new  sizes, 

A  labor-saving  reglet-case  is  also  kept  on  sale, 
which  holds  from  eighteen  hundred  to  twenty-four 
hundred  pieces  of  pica  and  nonpareil.  It  contains 


New  form  of  cabinet  for  furniture        67 

nine  distinct  sizes,  graduated  six  picas  apart,  from 
twelve  to  sixty  picas.  This  is  not  enough,  for  there 
should  be  forty  lengths  between  these  extremes. 
As  the  reglet  stored  does  not  stand  upright,  resting 
upon  its  cut  edge,  it  is  liable  to  disorder. 

The  furniture-cabinet  shown  on  page  69  contains 
enough  of  sizes  for  all  the  usual  requirements  of 
a  book-house.  It  is  intended  to  be  put  under  an 


Reglet-rack. 

imposing-stone  of  the  dimensions  33  X  86  inches. 
As  making  up  in  a  book-house  is  rarely  done  on 
the  stone,  the  pulling  out  of  a  box  does  not  hinder 
or  annoy  the  imposer  of  a  form  any  more  than  the 
pulling  out  of  a  chase  from  the  chase-rack,  which 
is  usually  kept  in  the  same  place.1 

l  When  a  dead  -  wall  space  is  wall,  but  it  should  be  where  its 

more  available,  the  cabinet  can  contents  can  be  easily  examined, 

be  divided  in  two  long  sections,  Furniture  needs  a  fair  light  as 

to  be  placed  against  this  dead  much  as  type  or  leads. 


68  Plan  of  furniture-cabinet 

It  contains  twenty-eight  drawers — twelve  on  one 
side  (not  shown  in  the  illustration)  and  sixteen  on 
the  other.  These  drawers  are  of  unequal  height, 
to  suit  the  different  lengths.  Each  piece  of  fur- 
niture or  reglet  rests  on  its  cut  edge  or  narrow  end. 
If  too  long  a  piece  is  put  in,  the  drawer  cannot  be 
closed ;  if  too  short  a  piece  is  put  in,  its  shortness 
is  at  once  detected.  The  vertical  rest  of  each  piece 
is  a  safeguard  against  the  mixing  of  lengths. 

Each  drawer  is  divided  into  two  compartments 
that  hold  proximate  sizes  like  twelve  and  thirteen 
ems  pica,  so  that  the  compositor  can  readily  select 
either.  Each  compartment  contains  six  longitudi- 
nal partitions  for  the  six  different  widths  of  non- 
pareil, pica,  two-line,  four-line,  six-line,  and  ten-line. 
To  pull  out  or  shove  in  the  drawer  does  not  throw 
the  standing  pieces  in  confusion,  even  when  each 
partition  may  be  but  half  full,  for  if  they  are  jostled 
to  fall,  they  must  fall  sidewise.  Each  piece  is  neatly 
planed  and  squared,  and  has  its  length  in  picas 
stamped  by  a  punch  in  figures  on  its  end. 

These  drawers  contain  fifty-six  lengths,  begin- 
ning with  twelve  picas  and  advancing  by  one  pica 
to  sixty  picas.  Beyond  that  the  progression  is  by 
one  and  a  half  picas,  or  great  primer — a  graduation 
that  is  close  enough  for  all  ordinary  work.  For 
lengths  beyond  seventy  and  a  half  picas,  that  are 
rarely  required  in  book- work,  two  or  more  pieces 
can  be  combined.  As  each  piece  is  properly  num- 
bered, the  compositor  who  may  pick  it  up  when  out 


70  Storage  of  long  furniture 

of  its  place  knows  at  once  in  what  drawer  of  the 
cabinet  it  should  be  placed.1 

For  posters  and  large  job-work  another  form  of 
furniture-rack  must  be  devised.  Drawers  that  hold 
many  pieces  of  long  furniture  are  too  weighty  to 
be  moved  in  and  out  with  ease.  The  open  pigeon- 
holes with  pockets  of  unequal  depth  (after  the  sys- 
tem of  the  lead-rack  as  shown  on  page  60)  will  be 
found  convenient,  but  these  pigeonholes  should  be 
properly  subdivided  with  partitions  for  the  separa- 
tion of  different  widths.  To  be  of  general  and  last- 
ing service  these  pigeonholes  should  be  constructed 
on  a  generous  plan,  to  make  special  place  for  every 
length  that  may  be  needed,  in  graduated  lengths  at 
most  two  picas  apart.  It  may  not  be  expedient  to 
get  all  sizes  at  once,  but  places  should  be  reserved 
for  new  sizes  when  they  are  bought.  Where  space 
is  crowded  it  may  be  judicious  to  keep  long  furni- 
ture under  different  stones  or  cases  j  but  it  is  better 
practice,  when  the  space  can  be  given,  to  construct 
against  a  dead  wall  a  large  rack  with  a  pigeonhole 
for  every  size  in  use,  with  provision  for  intermedi- 
ate sizes  to  be  afterward  furnished. 

Wood  furniture  is  cheap,  light,  and  can  be  easily 
handled,  but  it  is  liable  to  shrink,  fray,  or  warp. 

1  The  cost  of  a  fully  equipped  care,  will  be  serviceable  for  more 

cabinet  of  this  pattern  is  not  than  a  lifetime.    It  will  not  only 

small,  but  it  is  much  less  than  prevent  waste  of  labor,  but  will 

the  sum  usually  paid  every  year  help  the  compositor  to  produce 

for  wasted  time,  wasted  mate-  quicker  as  well  as  neater  work, 

rial,  and  unavoidable  confusion.  Neglect  to  provide  cut  furniture 

A  cabinet  of  this  form,  with  fair  is  not  wise  economy. 


Metal  furniture  needs  care  71 

For  exact  work,  metal  furniture  is  always  preferred. 

The   illustration    annexed   represents   a   sectional 

view  of  an  old  form  of 

metal  furniture,   which 

is  made   in  lengths   of 

twelve  inches,  of  seven 

widths  from  two-  to  ten- 
line  pica.     This  form  has  the  merits  of  strength, 

stiffness,  and  accuracy,  but  it  is  not  adapted  for 

combinations  of  unlike  pieces. 

Combination  metal  furniture  is  made  of   many 

widths  from  three-  to  ten-line  pica,  and  from  five- 

to  thirty-line  pica  long. 
Its  open  centres  make 
it  light,  and  its  interior 
bridges  insure  a  reason- 
able strength.  There  is 

another  form,  rather  stronger  and  heavier,  with 

hollow  or  oval  centres,  without  connecting  bridges. 

FURNITURE-RACKS 

Metal  furniture  that  has  been  roughened  by  care- 
less handling  cannot  be  combined  with  precision. 
Nor  can  combinations  of  small  pieces  be  safely 
used  for  the  head-bolts  or  gutters  of  book-forms, 
for  they  lack  the  stiffness  that  is  required  to  keep 
types  squarely  in  line.  For  the  head-bolts  and  gut- 
ters of  book-forms  single  pieces  are  better.  The 
roughening  of  improved  metal  furniture  is  largely 


72 


Rack  for  metal  furniture 


caused  by  bruising  it  with  the  shooting-stick,  or 
by  throwing  the  pieces  pell-mell  in  an  open  drawer. 
To  keep  the  edges  free  from  bruising,  it  should  be 

handled  with  as  great 
care  as  types;  it  should 
not  be  dropped  upon  the 
stone ;  it  should  be  kept 
in  neatly  piled  columns 
and  in  pigeonholes  that 
have  a  separate  compart- 
ment for  every  size. 

Large  pieces  of  com- 
bination metal  furniture 
are  of  limited  value ;  the 
larger  they  are,  the  less 

they  can  be  used.     Many 
Rack  for  metal  furniture.  •    -•          -i  -,•         *-, 

printing  -  houses    discard 

them,  and  make  up  blanks  from  a  combination  of 
small  pieces  that  can  be  used  anywhere. 


QUOTATIONS 

The  most  serviceable  forms  of  metal  furniture  for 
inside  composition  are  quotations  cast  on  the  body 
of  three  by  four  picas,  but  they  are 
sometimes  connected  in  one  piece,  in 
lengths  of  eight,  sixteen,  and  twenty 
picas.  As  they  combine  the  good 
qualities  of  strength  and  light  weight  with  adapta- 
bility to  all  pages,  they  are  used  in  some  houses  to 


Quotations  with  bearers 


73 


the  exclusion  of  other  forms  of  metal  furniture. 
Justifying  spaces  of  three-line  and  four-line  body 
should  be  a  part  of  every  supply  of  quotations.  It 
is  not  good  workmanship  to  justify  them  with  the 
quadrats  of  smaller  bodies,  for  they  annoy  the 
electrotyper.  Pages  to  be  electrotyped  need  for 
all  their  large  blanks  a  special  form  of  quotation, 
of  higher  body,  concave  on  two  sides,  but  solid  and 


o    © 


tight  at  top,  with  projecting  disks  or  bearers  that 
equalize  the  pressure  of  the  moulding  press  and 
prevent  the  splurging  of  the  moulding  wax. 


ELECTROTYPE    GUARDS 

Pamphlets  and  books  of  limited  edition  continue 
to  be  printed  direct  from  type,  but  all  books  that 
are  expected  to  have  large  sale  from  two  or  more 
editions  are  invariably  printed  from  electrotype 
plates.  The  proper  preparation  of  the  pages  for  the 
different  processes  of  moulding  and  finishing  in  the 
making  of  these  plates  calls  for  additional  guards 
within  the  pages,  and  especially  in  all  chapter  heads 
and  tails.  The  guards  provided  by  type-founders 


74         Quadrats  needed  in  electrotyping 

are  quadrats  cast  with  shoulders  as  high  as  those 
of  the  types  of  the  text.  On  the  top  of  these  quad- 
rats are  circular  disks  full  type-high,  that  serve  as 
aids  to  even  pressure  from  the  moulding  press,  and 
prevent  the  outspreading  of  the  moulding  wax. 

These  quadrats  with  guards  serve  another  useful 
purpose  by  protecting  the  letters  on  the  plates  from 
bruises  while  they  are  in  the  hands  of  the  finisher 


Quadrats  preferred  for  electrotyping. 

and  prover.  Much  to  the  bewilderment  of  an  un- 
practised proof-reader,  these  black  disks  often 
appear  on  the  author's  proof,  but  they  are  routed 
off  when  all  corrections  have  been  made  and  the 
plates  are  pronounced  ready  for  press. 


MES   HARPER 


III 


COMPOSITION 

Time-work  and  piece-work  .  .  .  Customary  routine  on  books 
Justification  .  .  .  Spacing  and  leading  .  .  .  Distribution 
Hand-work  and  machine-work  .  .  .  Proper  methods  of 
hand-work  .  .  Recent  mannerisms 


TIME-WORK    AND    PIECE-WORK 


OMPOSITION  in  every  book- 
house  is  done  by  two  sets  of 
workmen  that  are  respectively 
called  time-hands  and  piece- 
hands.  It  is  oftenest  a  mat- 
ter of  contract.  The  publisher 
requires  an  employing  printer 
to  furnish  perfected  composition  at  a  fixed  price 
per  page  or  per  thousand  ems.  In  turn  the  master 
printer  agrees  with  his  piece-compositors  to  have 
them  do  the  type-setting  part  of  plain  composition 
at  a  fixed  price  per  thousand  ems.  The  price  given 

75 


76  Routine  of  book  composition 

to  the  compositors  includes  the  distribution  of  type 
and  the  correction  of  the  compositor's  faulty  work 
as  it  maybe  marked  by  the  office  proof-reader,  but 
it  does  not  include  other  service  that  is  needed  to 
perfect  the  contract  with  the  publisher.  Making 
up  and  stone-work,  proof-reading  and  superinten- 
dence, all  of  equal  importance,  are  not  paid  for  by 
the  piece,  for  the  work  done  in  each  one  of  these 
departments  is  of  too  irregular  a  nature  and  is  too 
unequal  in  its  requirements  of  time  and  dexterity 
to  be  adjusted  by  fixed  prices.  They  must  be  done 
by  day's  work,  or  "  on  time,"  as  printers  phrase  this 
method.  The  cost  of  this  supplementary  work  is 
variable,  seldom  less  and  often  more  than  one  half 
of  the  cost  of  the  type-setting  that  has  been  done 
by  piece-hands.  Although  the  composition  of  books 
is  usually  rated  as  piece-work,  it  should  be  under- 
stood that  about  one  half  of  it  in  value  is  time- 
work  of  uncertain  cost.1 

CUSTOMARY  ROUTINE  ON  BOOKS 

When  an  agreement  has  been  concluded  with  the 
author  about  the  style  of  an  intended  book,  the 
copy  should  be  examined  by  an  expert,  who  will 
take  note  of  the  possible  need  of  additional  sorts 

1  Spelling,  abbreviation,  punc-  position.     In  this  and  following 

tuation,  and  other  matters  that  chapters,  remarks  and   sugges- 

belong   to   the  literary   side  of  tions  have  to  be  confined  to  the 

type-setting  have  been  noticed  purely  mechanical  side  of  book 

in  the  treatise  on  Correct  Com-  composition. 


Minute  instructions  are  needed          77 

that  may  be  required  in  excess.  These  sorts  may  be 
accents,  signs,  small  capitals,  italic,  figures,  or  new 
characters,  but  they  should  be  procured  and  put  in 
case  before  the  copy  is  given  to  the  compositor.1 
To  begin  composition  without  the  needed  materials, 
and  to  "  turn  for  sorts,"  is  always  wasteful  of  time 
and  productive  of  error.  Obeying  general  direc- 
tions, the  expert  may  specify  the  types  for  chapter 
headings,  subheadings,  tables,  extracts,  and  notes, 
and  must  try  to  give  proper  directions  for  uniform- 
ity in  the  use  of  capitals,  italic,  quotation-marks, 
etc.  Here  his  duty  ends.  He  must  not  edit. 

Copy  is  invariably  given  out  to  piece-compositors 
in  portions  known  as  "  takes,"  which  will  vary  in 
quantity  from  ten  to  one  hundred  lines  or  more. 
Short  takes  are  given  when  work  is  in  haste,  and 
the  compositors  are  required  to  empty  composed 
matter  on  a  galley  in  a  prescribed  order.  By  this 
method  the  galley  is  quickly  filled,  and  may  be  as 
quickly  read  and  corrected.  Long  takes  are  given 
when  work  is  not  in  haste  and  when  the  composi- 
tors are  of  nearly  equal  ability. 

The  compositor  should  give  close  attention  to 
spoken  and  written  instructions  before  he  begins 
to  set  type.  If  they  are  insufficient,  he  should  ask 
all  the  necessary  questions.  In  no  case  should  he 
begin  composition  until  he  knows  what  he  must  do 
with  every  uncertain  feature  of  his  copy. 

1  It  is  not  wise  to  order  sorts  in  small  quantities  by  a  guess  as  to  their 
weight.     Specify  the  number  wanted  of  each  character. 


78  Equal  division  of  all  duties 

Print  is  always  more  readable  when  each  change 
in  its  description  or  its  argument  is  presented  in  a 
fresh  paragraph.  Dialogue  matter  should  have  a 
new  paragraph  for  the  words  of  every  speaker,  but 
the  paragraphing  should  have  been  settled  by  the 
author  in  the  copy.  If  the  compositor  thinks  that 
the  matter  is  too  solid,  he  may  show  it  to  the  fore- 
man and  ask  him  or  whoever  is  in  authority  to 
decide  the  doubt,  but  the  making  of  a  new  para- 
graph is  not  in  his  province. 

Three  methods  of  performing  routine  work  on 
book  composition  have  been  practised.  An  old 
method  required  the  compositor  who  held  the  first 
long  take  to  make  up  in  pages  the  matter  he  had 
composed  and  to  pass  his  incomplete  page  with 
its  copy  to  the  holder  of  the  second  long  take,  who 
pursued  the  same  routine  with  the  holder  of  the 
third  take.  In  like  manner,  make-up  was  passed 
from  hand  to  hand  until  pages  enough  had  been 
made  up  to  fill  the  form.  Every  compositor  laid 
his  made-up  page  upon  the  stone,  and  was  held 
responsible  for  the  correctness  of  his  making  up 
and  for  its  proper  placing.  The  fitting  up  of  the 
chase  with  furniture,  the  adjustment  of  margins, 
and  the  locking  up  and  proving  of  the  form  were 
done  in  turn  by  each  compositor.  This  method 
equitably  divided  irksome  duties  among  all  the 
compositors,  but  it  had  to  be  abandoned  when  an 
expert  workman  mated  with  too  many  inexperts 
had  to  do  more  than  his  fair  share  of  the  work. 


Working  in  companionship  79 

Another  method  was  that  of  companionship.  By 
this  method  the  compositors  on  the  book  elected 
their  own  maker -up,  who  was  thereby  made  an 
assistant  to  the  general  foreman.  He  received  the 
copy  entire  and  gave  it  out  in  takes  to  each  com- 
positor. When  there  were  many  compositors,  he 
attended  chiefly  to  make-up  and  stone-work  j  when 
there  were  few,  he  did  composition  when  not  other- 
wise employed.  He  ascertained  the  daily  special 
needs  of  counting-room,  press-room,  and  reading- 
room,  and  arranged  his  work  so  that  time  would 
not  be  needlessly  lost  in  any  department.  He  had 
the  right  to  order  any  compositor  to  do  corrections 
or  other  work  of  like  nature  at  his  pleasure.  By 
English  usage,  he  could  fine  a  compositor  for  bad 
work  or  for  shirking  duty.  .  He  kept  a  schedule  in 
which  he  recorded  the  lines  set  or  the  work  done 
each  day  by  each  workman.  The  value  of  the  head- 
and  foot -lines  and  blank  lines  he  had  composed 
was  separately  computed,  and  the  pay  therefor  was 
divided  among  the  compositors  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  lines  each  compositor  had  set.  The 
maker-up  received,  as  had  been  agreed  on,  a  fixed 
price  per  page  or  per  thousand  ems,  or  the  same 
amount  as  the  compositor  who  had  realized  the 
largest  bill.  The  intent  of  the  companionship  was 
to  quicken  performance,  to  make  men  help  one 
another,  to  prevent  the  shirking  of  duty,  the  hoard- 
ing of  sorts,  and  the  taking  of  unfair  advantages 
of  any  kind. 


80  Make-up  now  done  on  time 

This  method  of  working  in  companionship  is  no 
longer  practised  in  the  United  States.  There  are 
few  competent  men  who  will  make  up  for  a  com- 
panionship, for  the  pay  conceded  is  usually  insuffi- 
cient. There  is  a  general  undervaluation  of  this 
labor,  not  only  by  compositors,  but  by  publishers, 
and  even  by  some  master  printers. 

Make-up  and  stone-work  are  now  performed  in 
all  American  book-houses  by  men  appointed  by  the 
foreman.  Their  service  is  paid  for  "  on  time,"  for 
make-up  by  the  piece,  which  may  seem  the  cheaper 
and  quicker  method,  is  too  often  done  wastefully, 
apart  from  its  imposing  needless  labor  upon  other 
time-hands.  It  is  seldom  well  done  in  all  details 
unless  the  time  and  methods  of  the  maker-up  are 
entirely  under  the  control  of  the  foreman. 

Compositors  deliver  their  copy  and  the  matter 
as  it  is  set  to  the  maker-up,  who  has  their  galleys 
proved,  and  then  passes  the  copy  and  proof  to  the 
proof-reader.  Illustrations  furnished  with  copy 
that  cannot  be  proved  on  the  galley1  are  put  by 
him  in  the  proper  place  as  attachments  to  the  proof, 
and  subsequently  measured  and  allowed  for  at  the 

1  In  some  book-houses  proofs  correction  of  outs  or  doublets 

are  not  taken  upon  the  galley,  will  compel  the  overrunning  of 

Matter  is  made  up  in  pages  as  many  pages.  When  many  proof  s 

fast  as  it  is  set,  and  the  pages  are  required  by  the  author,  and 

are  proved  in  strings  on  a  press  paragraphs  are  cancelled  or  are 

or  with  proof -planer  on  stone,  added,  all  the  pages  of  a  chapter 

This  method  saves  the  employer  will  have  to  be  untied  and  retied, 

the  cost  and  care  of  many  gal-  with  more  delay  and  increasing 

leys,  but  it  does  not  quicken  or  liability  to  new  errors  in  every 

improve    composition,   for   the  alteration. 


Duties  of  the  maker-up  81 

same  rate  as  composed  type  ;  but  all  the  other  fat 
matter  that  has  been  composed  and  arranged  by  the 
maker-up,  as  full -page  cuts,  head-  and  foot -lines, 
chapter  heads  and  tails,  is  not  reckoned  for  the 
benefit  of  the  piece-compositor.  The  illustrations, 
often  delayed  for  many  days,  are  seldom  furnished 
until  type  is  ready  for  make-up. 

Electrotyping  has  materially  changed  the  old 
routine  and  has  put  extra  labor  on  the  stoneman. 
Instead  of  imposing  sixteen  pages  of  octavo  in  one 
chase,  the  stoneman  now  has  to  put  one  large  or 
four  small  pages  in  the  chase,  and  to  give  more 
attention  to  many  small  chases  than  he  formerly 
gave  to  one  chase.  When  great  nicety  of  mould- 
ing is  desired,  one  page  only  is  put  in  a  chase,  and 
additional  bearers  have  to  be  added  in  every  ex- 
posed blank.  The  time  now  allowed  for  the  proper 
preparation  of  the  pages  is  much  greater  than  that 
heretofore  given  to  the  ordinary  letterpress  form. 

The  maker-up  rearranges  the  copy  in  order,  and 
compares  it  with  the  composed  type  on  galley  to 
make  sure  that  there  have  been  no  omissions  or 
transpositions.  A  proof  of  the  galley  is  then  taken, 
usually  on  a  proof -press  of  the  form  shown  in  the 
illustration  on  the  next  page. 

Proof-paper  should  be  thin,  sized,  smooth,  and 
but  lightly  dampened.  Ink  should  be  stiff  and  re- 
peatedly rolled  on  the  ink-table,  so  that  it  can  be 
thinly  and  evenly  distributed  upon  the  type,  which 
should  be  rolled  slowly  and  carefully  to  produce 
6 


82  The  cylinder  press  for  proving 


This  is  the  press  most  used 
for  proving  galleys,  but  it  will 
seriously  damage  type  if  the 
galley  has  been  underlaid  with 
cardboard,  or  if  the  cylinder  has 
been  covered  with  an  extra  wrap 
of  paper  or  too  thick  a  blanket. 
These  rude  methods  are  often 
practised  when  the  proof-paper 
is  unsuitably  dry  or  harsh  and 
does  not  give  a  readable  proof 
with  moderate  pressure.  If  the 
galley  is  kinked,  or  uneven  at 
the  bottom,  or  if  the  type  has 


not  been  truly  planed  down,  this 
iron  cylinder  will  do  more  harm 
to  the  type  than  is  afterward 
done  by  the  printing-machine. 

Another  form  of  proof-press 
has  its  proof -paper  in  an  endless 
roll,  and  an  automatic  inking- 
roller  that  precedes  the  move- 
ment of  the  cylinder.  These  de- 
vices materially  lessen  the  work 
of  taking  proofs.  In  newspaper 
houses,  that  prove  many  galleys 
together,  a  new  form  of  proof- 
press  is  worked  by  steam-power. 


Duties  of  the  maker-up  83 

a  readable  proof.  An  overinked  proof  prevents 
the  reader  from  detecting  imperfect  letters. 

When  the  reader  has  marked  all  the  errors  noted 
in  the  proof,  has  put  down  his  queries,  and  has 
checked  in  proper  places  the  names  of  the  com- 
positors, the  proof  is  returned  to  the  compositors 
for  correction.  Unless  otherwise  directed,  correc- 
tion takes  precedence  over  all  other  work.  Each 
compositor  corrects  the  errors  of  his  own  composi- 
tion, and  passes  the  galley  to  the  compositor  next 
in  order  until  correction  is  complete.  A  proof  for 
revise  is  then  taken,  and  the  reviser  compares  this 
revise  with  the  first  proof.  If  any  error  marked 
has  been  neglected  or  wrongly  corrected,  this  error 
is  again  marked  on  the  revise,  and  is  returned  to 
the  neglectful  compositor,  who  is  required  to  cor- 
rect it  properly  and  to  furnish  a  clean  proof.  The 
galley  so  corrected  is  returned  by  the  compositor 
with  the  corrected  proof  to  the  maker-up. 

When  the  matter  is  a  strict  reprint  that  will 
not  receive  any  change  in  text,  the  maker-up  pro- 
ceeds to  put  it  in  page  form,  and  the  pages  so  made 
up  are  then  imposed  in  a  chase.  If,  however,  a 
chase  is  not  to  be  had,  the  tied-up  pages  are  laid 
on  the  stone,  and  a  pounded  proof  is  taken  with 
the  proof -planer  from  the  pages  still  in  the  strings. 
This  is  not  a  procedure  to  be  recommended,  for 
proving  in  strings  tends  to  displace  thin  letters  at 
the  ends  of  lines  and  to  work  types  off  their  feet, 
but  it  is  often  an  unavoidable  practice.  After  ink 


84  Duties  of  the  proof-reader 

on  the  proved  type  has  been  imperfectly  removed 
with  a  brush  moistened  with  benzine,1  the  page  is 
inclosed  in  a  wrapper  of  stout  paper  and  is  put 
upon  a  letter-board  or  bank  for  future  use. 

For  manuscript  copy  that  may  receive  changes 
in  the  text,  another  proof  should  be  taken  on  the 
galley,  and  this  proof  should  be  sent  with  the  first 
proof  corrected  to  the  proof-reader,  who  adds  his 
queries,  stamps  it  with  the  proper  date,  and  for- 
wards it  to  the  author  with  the  copy.  The  author 
returns  it  with  his  alterations,  but  he  may  require 
another  proof  containing  the  correction  of  these 
alterations.  It  is  always  a  great  risk  to  make  up 
before  the  author  has  finished  corrections,  or  before 
the  cuts  or  diagrams  are  ready.  Overrunning  of 
type  in  made-up  pages  is  slow  and  expensive. 

When  the  author  has  nothing  more  to  add,  and 
all  the  illustrations  are  in  their  places,  the  matter 
may  be  made  up  in  pages.  At  this  stage  the  rou- 
tine differs.  In  a  few  houses  the  second  reading 
of  the  printing-house  is  done  by  the  foundry-reader 
upon  the  page  proof  sent  to  the  author.  This  can 
be  done  with  safety  when  it  is  surely  known  that 

i  The  cleaning  of  proved  type  daily  deposits  of  fine  dust,  and 

is  usually  the  duty  of  the  office-  dries  slowly,  until  it  is  so  firmly 

boy,  who  often  does  this  work  attached  to  the  metal  that  it  has 

slightingly.     His  few  passes  of  to  be  removed  by  steam  or  boil- 

the  brush  over  the  type    may  ing  lye.    It  is  better  to  prevent 

clean  the  face,  but  they  push  than  to  cure  this  fault.   A  moist 

much  undissolved  ink  over  the  sponge,  following  the  application 

face  on  the  shoulders  and  in  the  of  the  brush,  if  properly  used, 

counters  of  the  type.     In  these  will  sop  out  the  gummy  deposit 

places  the  adhering  ink  receives  left  by  benzine  and  foul  ink. 


Responsibility  for  alterations  85 

nothing  more  will  be  added  to  the  proof  by  the 
author.  A  reading  of  the  page  proof  by  the  office 
reader  before  it  will  be  seen  by  the  author  gives 
the  latter  more  time  to  consider  queries  and  to 
approve  or  disapprove  proposed  suggestions.  In 
other  houses  the  final  reading  or  the  reading  for 
foundry  is  given  only  when  the  author  returns 
the  proof  as  entirely  corrected.  This  is  a  better 
method,  but  it  takes  more  time  and  may  compel 
the  resubmission  to  the  author  of  another  proof. 

All  proofs  sent  to  an  author  should  be  returned 
to  the  printing-house,  even  those  that  have  been 
faithfully  corrected  and  revised  and  are  apparently 
of  no  future  value,  for  every  proof  contains  some 
memoranda  of  the  readers  on  the  margins  that 
are  needed  for  the  perfection  of  the  work. 

Book-work  should  receive  two  readings  at  the 
expense  of  the  office.  The  compositor  is  required 
to  make  his  work  correct  to  copy  and  to  maintain 
uniformity  in  style,  according  to  his  instructions. 
After  composition  has  been  made  correct  to  copy 
and  is  put  into  pages  in  a  workmanlike  shape, 
the  printing-house  has  completed  the  part  of  its 
contract  that  concerns  composition.  All  changes 
subsequently  made  by  author  or  publisher,  whether 
in  the  type  or  in  the  arrangement  of  paragraphs 
or  illustrations,  including  the  time  spent  in  the 
re-reading  by  copy  of  subsequent  proofs  caused  by 
the  overrunning  of  matter,  are  rated  as  author's 
alterations  and  are  at  the  publisher's  expense. 


86         Importance  of  exact  justification 


JUSTIFICATION 

A  common  fault  of  the  novice  at  composition  is 
that  of  justifying  one  line  tight  and  leaving  an- 
other loose.  It  is  a  mistake  to  assume  that  a  line 
loosely  justified  can  be  made  tight  in  the  form  by 
vigorous  locking  up.  It  may  be  made  apparently 
tight  by  strong  locking  up  from  the  foot,  but  when 
the  form  is  lifted  up  from  the  stone  a  type  may 
drop  out  unperceived,  or  it  may  be  drawn  out  on 
press  by  the  suction  of  the  rollers.  This  is  a  seri- 
ous fault,  for  the  absence  of  one  character  in  the 
print  may  necessitate  the  reprinting  of  the  entire 
sheet  at  a  great  loss.1  In  the  book-printing  house, 
that  compositor  who  does  not  justify  lines  firmly 
is  rated  as  a  careless  workman,  whatever  his  age 
or  experience. 

A  line  is  not  satisfactorily  justified  if  it  will  not 
stand  in  the  stick  unsupported  by  the  composing- 
rule.  If  the  leads  project  beyond  the  type,  or  if 
they  are  flush  with  the  type,  the  lines  so  treated  can- 
not be  tightened  by  side-pressure.  They  may  be 
feebly  held  by  the  pressure  of  the  foot-stick,  but 
there  is  always  a  liability  that  a  loosely  justified 
line  will  work  off  its  feet  side  wise  or  produce  an 

1  Exact  justification  is  needed  boards,"  or  dampened  slips  of 

now  more  than  it  was  in  earlier  spongy  cardboard  put  between 

days,  when  types  were  printed  the  line  end  and  the  side-stick, 

on  hand-presses  in  small  forms.  When  presswork  is  done  direct 

Loose  justification  was  then  im-  from  large  forms  of  type,  exact 

perfectly  corrected  by   "scale-  justification  is  obligatory. 


Saves  time  on  stone  and  press  87 

imperfect  impression.  Over-tight  justification  is  a 
rare  fault,  but  it  is  equally  mischievous.  Uneven 
justification  by  two  compositors  on  the  same  page 
may  prevent  the  joining  of  mitred  brass  rules. 

Large  type  in  a  narrow  measure  can  be  justified 
moderately  tight ;  small  type  in  a  narrow  measure 
must  be  made  full  tight.  Practice  with  different 
bodies  of  type  is  needed  before  the  required  degree 
of  tightness  can  be  fairly  understood. 

To  justify  nicely,  the  compositor  should  have  at 
hand  enough  of  thin  spaces  and  hair-spaces,  and 
they  should  be  kept  separate  in  distribution.  It 
is  not  correct  practice  to  put  four-to-em  and  five- 
to-em  spaces  in  the  same  box.  Their  distant  posi- 
tion in  the  ordinary  case  is  a  serious  hindrance, 
for  time  is  needlessly  lost  in  reaching  after  them. 
Justification  would  be  improved  if  cases  could  be 
made  with  boxes  for  all  kinds  of  spaces  clustered 
under  the  compositor's  hand.  The  so-called  self- 
spacing  types  and  spaces  on  point-sets  are  other 
aids  to  justification. 

Job-printers  have  to  make  use  of  very  thin  spaces, 
cut  from  ten-to-pica  leads  or  thin  brass  or  card- 
board, for  the  justification  of  large  types.  When 
proper  spaces  have  been  selected,  a  job  in  a  large 
form  can  be  locked  up  securely  with  slight  taps  of 
the  shooting-stick.  Forms  that  have  been  neatly 
justified  save  great  waste  of  time  on  the  stone ; 
they  prevent  the  wear  of  type  from  violent  planing 
down,  and  aid  the  pressman  in  making  ready. 


88        Spaces  to  be  used  with  discretion 


SPACING    AND    LEADING 

Uneven  spacing  between  the  words  of  a  line  is  a 
common  fault.  In  book-work  it  is  required  that 
the  space  between  the  words  of  a  line  shall  seem 
uniform  in  width,  but  to  produce  this  appearance 
of  uniformity  spaces  of  different  thickness  must  be 
selected  for  use  between  types  of  unlike  form.  The 
tall  d  at  the  end  of  one  word  and  the  tall  h  at  the 
beginning  of  the  next  word  call  for  a  thicker  space 
than  that  selected  for  the  meeting  of  two  round 
types  like  O  and  e  in  a  similar  position.  The  space 
after  a  comma  or  an  abbreviating  period  may  be 
thinner  than  that  used  after  an  unpointed  word. 
These  may  seem  trifling  niceties,  but  their  neglect 
damages  the  appearance  of  print. 

The  space  most  acceptable  between  entire  words 
in  solid  and  thin -leaded  composition  is  the  three- 
to-em  space,  and  it  should  be  used  on  all  types 
with  round  letters  of  ordinary  height,  in  which  the 
height  of  the  m  is  about  one  half  that  of  the  body. 
If  the  round  letters  are  higher,  occupying  a  much 
larger  part  of  the  body,  spacing  may  be  wider ;  if 
they  are  lower,  as  in  the  case  of  a  brevier  on  bour- 
geois body,  spacing  may  be  narrower.  Wide-space 
fat  type;  thin -space  condensed  type. 

To  lessen  the  unsightliness  of  too  wide  spacing 
between  separate  words,  put  a  thin  space  on  each 
side  of  the  hyphen  that  connects  compound  words. 


Wide  and  narrow  spacing  89 

When  the  em  dash  is  used  in  the  middle  of  a  line, 
put  a  thin  space  before  and  after  the  dash.  This 
thin  space  may  be  omitted  when  the  dash  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  period  or  comma,  which  is  too  often 
needlessly  ordered  in  this  place. 

When  the  words  of  a  line  have  to  be  thin-spaced, 
the  em  quadrat  that  divides  sentences  in  that  line 
should  be  replaced  with  an  en  quadrat  or  a  three- 
to-em  space. 

The  rules  that  require  uniform  spacing  between 
words  come  in  conflict  with  other  rules  concerning 
an  arbitrary  division  of  words.  There  are  words, 
like  through  and  George,  that  are  rated  as  in- 
divisible. To  get  in  words  like  these  at  the  end  of 
a  line  compels  thin  spacing  j  to  drive  them  over  to 
the  next  makes  wide  spacing.  Either  alternative 
is  objectionable.  To  prevent  the  fault,  the  para- 
graph may  be  overrun,  but  this  expedient  is  always 
impracticable  in  a  narrow  measure.  Even  spacing 
often  has  to  be  sacrificed  for  correct  divisions. 

In  double-columned  matter,  solid  and  of  narrow 
measure,  thin  spacing  is  preferable.  In  the  broad 
measure,  especially  with  double-leaded  type,  wide 
spacing  is  better,  but  the  en  quadrat  should  be  a 
fair  average  for  all  open  composition.  Spacing  too 
wide  produces  "pigeonholes"  between  words,  and 
they  are  more  unsightly  than  too  thin  spacing. 
Even  in  leaded  work  it  is  better  to  thin -space 
the  last  line  of  a  paragraph  than  to  make  a  new 
line  that  has  two  or  three  characters  only.  Very 


90         Unwise  spacing  of  single  letters 

thin  spacing  is  permitted  in  poetry  when  it  pre- 
vents the  turn-over  of  a  short  syllable. 

Lines  of  capital  letters  should  always  be  leaded 
and  spaced  wider  than  the  letters  of  lower-case. 
The  en  quadrat  may  be  used  when  a  few  words  of 
capital  letters  are  put  in  the  text,  but  when  a  short 
line  of  capitals  appears  in  a  chapter  heading,  its 
words  should  be  separated  by  two  thick  spaces. 
In  a  short  line  of  an  open  title-page,  set  in  two-line 
letters  that  nearly  fill  the  body,  the  words  may  be 
properly  spaced  with  the  em  quadrat. 

In  electrotype  composition  a  projecting  f  at  the 
end  or  a  j  at  the  beginning  of  a  line  should  be 
followed  or  preceded  with  a  five -to -em  space,  to 
prevent  the  breaking  of  its  projecting  kern. 

Narrow  measures  make  even  spacing  difficult, 
especially  so  in  the  very  short  lines  of  text  type 
that  are  led  down  by  the  side  of  illustrations.  The 
spacing  of  single  letters  is  a  common  practice,  but 
it  often  makes  unsightly  work.  To  space  words 
with  the  em  or  twb-ein  quadrat  is  an  unpleasant 
alternative,  but  over-wide  spacing  between  words 
is  not  so  disagreeable  as  spaced  lower-case  letters. 
Side  and  cut-in  notes  are  not  improved  by  spacing 
single  types ;  when  the  author  cannot  change  their 
wording,  the  types  should  pass  unspaced. 

The  rule  that  prohibits  the  spacing  of  lower-case 
letters  should  not  be  applied  to  capitals,  for  al- 
though irregular  in  form,  they  are  fairly  uniform 
in  width.  Thin  spaces  judiciously  placed  between 


Leading  out  needs  discretion  91 

meeting  letters,  like  I  and  H,  that  have  upright 
stems,  and  omitted  between  letters  that  have  in- 
clined stems  or  are  of  irregular  form,  as  in  A,  Y, 
and  L,  make  the  line  more  pleasing.  In  an  un- 
spaced  line,  all  meeting  types  with  vertical  stems 
seem  huddled,  while  types  of  angular  form  seem 
awkwardly  separated.  The  fault  is  easily  corrected 
by  thin-spacing  the  types  with  upright  stems  that 
approach  each  other  too  closely.  In  all  book  titles 
and  running  titles,  an  irregular  spacing  of  lines  of 
capital  letters  will  conceal  the  faults  of  inequality. 
The  author  who  may  be  displeased  with  the  gen- 
eral effect  of  a  title-page,  and  who  does  not  know 
the  cause  of  his  dislike,  may  have  his  displeasure 
removed  by  the  irregular  spacing  of  letters  that 
are  too  close. 

The  leading  of  lines  calls  for  as  much  care  as 
the  spacing  of  words.  Leads  or  blanks  improperly 
selected  will  mar  the  fairness  of  any  composition. 
Ordinary  descriptive  matter  calls  for  no  caution 
other  than  the  repetition  of  the  remark  that  all  the 
leads  used  on  a  book  should  come  from  one  foun- 
dry and  be  exact  as  to  thickness,  so  that  all  pages 
shall  be  of  even  length,  and  each  line  shall  truly 
register  its  mated  line  on  the  back  of  the  page. 

Composition  that  is  broken  in  its  text  by  lines 
of  poetry,  extracts,  or  tables  of  figures,  or  that  has 
many  short  articles  separated  by  dashes,  will  re- 
quire the  leads  to  be  differently  adjusted  at  each 
break.  In  solid  composition  a  white  line  or  less  of 


92          Leads  before  and  after  dashes 

the  text  is  enough  to  mark  the  distinction,  but 
when  the  text  is  double-leaded  and  the  margins  are 
wide,  the  blank  may  be  wider.  A  page  intended 
to  be  open  and  readable  is  seriously  disfigured  by 
the  pinching  of  space  at  every  break.  Prodigality 
of  blanks  in  solid  composition  is  equally  offensive. 
The  rules  laid  down  for  even  spacing  should  apply 
to  leading :  for  solid  work,  thin  spaces  and  narrow 
breaks ;  for  leaded  work,  wider  spacing  and  blanks. 

When  the  last  line  of  a  paragraph  before  a  break 
consists  of  one  or  two  words  only,  leads  may  not 
be  needed  before  the  break,  for  the  white  made  by 
the  quadrats  that  fill  this  last  line  may  be  enough. 
If  leads  are  added  there  will  be  more  blank  at  the 
top  than  at  the  bottom  of  the  break,  which  is  not 
pleasing,  for  the  blanks  above  and  below  should 
seem  alike.  When  paragraphs  are  separated  by 
dashes,  there  should  be,  as  a  rule,  about  one  lead 
less  before  the  dash.  The  shoulders  of  the  letters 
in  the  last  line  usually  make  a  blank  equivalent  to 
the  width  of  one  lead.  When  the  same  number  of 
leads  are  put  on  each  side,  the  dash  will  seem  out 
of  centre,  with  more  space  above  than  below. 

Wide  blanks  should  never  be  made  with  leads ; 
a  column  or  page  so  treated  is  spongy  and  is  liable 
to  bow  or  hang  in  locking  up.  White  lines  of  large 
quadrats  will  make  the  work  more  solid. 

The  ordinary  paragraph  is  usually  indicated  by 
an  em  quadrat  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  line,  but 


Indention  and  distribution  93 

the  first  line  of  a  chapter,  or  any  line  following  a 
short  subheading  or  a  running  title,  or  with  a  full 
white  line  over  it,  needs  no  indention— not  even 
when  it  is  without  an  initial  or  a  two-line  letter. 
The  white  space  above  gives  enough  of  relief  to 
arrest  attention. 

Indentions  of  two  or  three  ems  are  occasionally 
demanded  for  broad  measures  and  double  -  leaded 
matter,  but  these  broad  indentions  make  awkward 
gaps  when  the  last  line  of  the  preceding  paragraph 
ends  with  a  short  syllable  of  three  characters  only. 
For  remarks  on  different  forms  of  indention,  see 
the  chapter  on  Indention  in  Correct  Composition. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Distribution,  much  more  difficult  to  the  novice  than 
composition,  must  be  preceded  by  dampening  the 
types  to  keep  them  from  falling  apart.  Not  more 
than  three  lines  should  be  taken  in  the  hand  at  the 
first  attempt,  but  this  number  can  be  increased  as 
expertness  in  handling  is  acquired.  The  novice 
should  not  undertake  distribution  until  he  thor- 
oughly knows  the  proper  box  for  every  character. 
A  printed  diagram  of  the  case  should  be  before  him 
as  a  guide.  Accuracy  is  of  importance,  for  type 
wrongly  distributed  is  sure  to  be  detected  in  proof. 
Type  for  distribution  should  show  whiteness  of 
face  before  it  is  placed  upon  the  letter-board.  If 
it  is  foul,  grimy,  and  sticky,  the  type  should  be 


94          Proper  methods  of  distribution 

immersed  in  a  solution  of  hot  or  even  boiling  lye. 
Another  solvent  of  dirt  is  live  steam  on  the  galley. 
For  slight  foulness  use  benzine,  but  the  after  de- 
posit left  by  benzine  and  undissolved  ink  will  call 
for  the  application  of  diluted  ammonia  or  potash. 


Proper  position  of  the 
hands  in  distributing. 

The  novice  should  distribute  carefully  and  make 
sure  that  every  type  is  put  in  the  right  box.  Speed 
can  be  acquired  by  practice  only.  As  every  type 
wrongly  placed  makes  serious  delay  in  its  correc- 
tion, it  is  of  no  advantage  to  hurry  distribution. 
It  will  take  more  time  to  change  one  wrong  type 
in  the  proof  than  it  does  to  set  a  dozen  letters  in 
the  stick.  If  this  wrong  letter  compels  a  respacing 
of  the  line  in  the  stick,  the  time  so  spent  will  be  as 
great  as  that  taken  in  a  setting  of  twenty  letters. 
When  distributable  type  contains  unusual  words, 
the  spelling  of  these  words  should  be  understood 
before  their  types  are  parted.  It  is  better  to  read 
the  line,  and  to  take  up  the  full  word  when  it  can 


Strange  type  labelled  on  boxes          95 

be  done.  The  eye  should  follow  the  type  in  hand 
until  it  drops  in  the  right  box. 

When  distribution  can  be  done  before  meals,  the 
composition  of  moist  type  may  be  avoided.  The 
boxes  should  not  be  filled  so  high  that  their  types 
can  be  jostled  into  near-by  boxes.  The  case  should 
not  be  shaken  to  make  it  hold  more  letter.  The 
types  can  be  more  easily  picked  up  if  allowed  to 
remain  as  they  fall  from  the  distributer's  hand. 

A  stick  or  a  short  galley  should  be  kept  on  the 
ledge  of  the  upper  case  to  receive  words  of  italic  or 
characters  that  belong  to  another  case,  and  they 
should  be  put  in  the  proper  case  at  once. 

In  distributing  words  or  lines  that  are  unlike 
those  of  the  text  type,  carefully  examine  the  nick 
as  well  as  the  face  of  the  distrusted  letter.  Do  not 
be  deceived  by  a  general  appearance  of  similarity. 
Do  not  mix  old  and  worn  with  new  letter,  even  if 
nicks  and  faces  are  alike.  Make  sure  that  the  type 
is  returned  to  the  case  it  came  from. 

White  lines,  folio  lines,  and  all  matter  that  may 
be  used  again  should  be  put  on  the  standing  galley 
as  directed  by  the  foreman. 

The  correct  distribution  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  ac- 
cents, signs,  and  unusual  characters  will  be  greatly 
aided  by  printed  diagrams  of  cases,  which  should 
be  kept  exposed  for  the  use  of  new  compositors. 
Each  box  of  strange  types  should  have  a  print 
of  its  proper  character  pasted  upon  its  inner  side 
where  it  can  be  easily  seen. 


96  Why  hand-work  is  needed 


HAND-WORK  AND  MACHINE-WORK 

Machines  for  setting  type  are  now  common  in  many 
printing-houses,  but  at  this  date  (1903)  they  have 
not  seriously  damaged  the  business  of  the  expert 
book-compositor.  In  a  few  houses  they  have  de- 
prived men  of  employment,  but  in  others  they  have 
increased  the  number  of  compositors  by  creating 
work  that  did  not  previously  exist.  Yet  their  field 
of  service  is  relatively  limited.  At  this  stage  of 
their  development,  type-setting  machines  are  not 
serviceable  for  any  body  larger  than  12-  or  smaller 
than  5-point,  and  are  most  used  for  bodies  between 
5£-  and  8-point.  They  do  no  more  than  set  type. 
They  cannot  read  proof,  correct,  make  up,  impose, 
do  stone-work,  or  even  set  up  the  more  difficult 
kinds  of  book  composition,  which  are  done  now  by 
hand  as  they  have  been  for  more  than  four  hundred 
years.  The  need  of  workmen  expert  in  hand- 
composition  is  now  as  great  as  ever,  and  it  will  be 
greater  in  the  future.  Preliminary  practice  at  case 
is  needed  by  every  operator  on  machine. 

One  reason  for  the  continuance  of  hand- work  in 
type-setting  is  the  capricious  tastes  of  authors  and 
publishers.  Every  large  printing-house  has  to  pro- 
vide many  faces  of  roman  type,  yet  few  of  the  faces 
so  selected  can  be  adapted  with  economy  to  ma- 
chines. Types  that  are  very  large  or  very  small 
or  of  any  peculiar  face  must  be  set  by  hand.  The 


Expertness  in  type-setting  97 

composition  of  books  of  music  or  of  algebra,  or  of 
plain  roman  type  that  has  to  be  interspersed  with 
more  than  one  face  of  display  letter,  or  with  com- 
plex tables  of  names  or  figures,  with  cut-in  notes, 
or  with  other  odd  arrangements,  cannot  be  done 
economically  by  an  unintelligent  mechanism,  how- 
ever skilfully  it  may  be  directed.  All  composition 
that  requires  thought,  care,  and  the  watchful  adap- 
tation of  means  to  ends  in  every  line  continues  to 
be  done  by  hand. 


PROPER    METHODS    OF    HAND-WORK 

Expertness  in  composition  by  hand  is  acquired  by 
preliminary  practice  at  case — by  attention  to  the 
trifles  that  conduce  to  excellence.  Practice  should 
begin  with  correct  methods,  and  the  husbanding 
of  endurance  is  to  be  considered  first.  Type-set- 
ting is  not  hard  labor,  but  it  is  tiresome,  and  it 
will  be  fatiguing  if  false  positions  are  taken  before 
the  case  and  needless  motions  are  tolerated.  The 
height  of  the  case,  the  position  of  the  feet,  the  dis- 
tance from  the  stand,  and  even  the  inclination  of 
the  stick,  affect  performance.  Some  of  the  positions 
required,  like  the  twist  of  the  wrist  to  a  boy  learn- 
ing to  write,  seem  irksome  in  the  beginning,  but 
after  practice  these  constrained  positions  are  fol- 
lowed by  the  least  fatigue. 

The  case  should  allow  a  free  play  and  reach  of 
the  right  arm,  but  not  be  placed  so  low  as  to  cause 
7 


98  Expertness  in  type-setting 

bending  of  the  back.  Properly  adjusted,  the  case 
may  seem  too  high,  but  a  high  case  keeps  the  body 
erect,  shortens  the  play  of  the  arms,  and  prevents 
the  weariness  that  follows  continued  stooping. 

The  feet  should  be  so  placed  that  the  body  can 
be  kept  erect  and  not  be  swayed  too  much  from 
side  to  side.  The  work  of  reaching  for  a  distant 
type  should  be  done  largely  with  the  arms.  The 
crosspiece  at  the  base  of  the  stand  should  seldom 
be  used  to  rest  a  tired  foot,  for  the  temporary  relief 
it  gives  is  deceptive.  The  sitting  posture,  that  may 
be  used  with  propriety  in  distribution,  is  a  real 
hindrance  to  quick  composition. 

The  stick  in  the  left  hand  should  be  so  inclined 
that  the  type  put  therein  will  strike  the  composing- 
rule  at  a  correct 
angle.  When  not 
exactly  inclined, 
false  and  delay- 
ing motions  will 
follow.  The  stick 
should  follow  the 
hand  that  picks  up  the  type.  It  is  hard  to  train 
both  arms  to  work  in  concert,  but  when  they  'do 
performance  is  always  increased. 

The  eye  should  select  the  type  before  it  is  seized 
by  the  fingers,  and  this  type  should  be  taken,  nick 
out,  on  the  upper  part  of  the  body, -so  that  it  will 
not  have  to  be  turned  in  the  fingers. 

From  a  strict  reprint  copy,  the  spacing  between 


Expertness  in  type-setting  99 

words  should  be  copied  as  each  word  is  set.  In 
manuscript  the  full  sentence  should  be  read  and 
thoroughly  understood  before  the  first  type  is  seized. 
Punctuation  cannot  be  properly  done  when  only 
half  or  quarter  of  the  sentence  is  understood.  Neg- 
lect to  read  the  complete  sentence  will  compel  some 
waste  of  time  in  a  more  frequent  inspection  of  the 
copy,  and  will  increase  the  liability  to  make  outs. 

The  typographic  formulas  of  the  house  should 
be  understood  before  composition.  Many  printing- 
houses  have  a  printed  code  for  the  proper  use  of 
capitals,  italic,  points,  and  abbreviations,  that  re- 
quires close  reading  and  memorizing. 

When  foot-notes  appear  in  the  copy,  these  notes, 
set  in  small  type  from  another  case,  should  be  put 
next  to  the  line  that  shows  the  mark  of  reference. 
The  inaker-up  will  arrange  them  in  their  places. 

Justifying  spaces  in  the  last  or  quadrat  line  of  a 
paragraph  should  always  be  put  before  the  quadrats. 

Each  type  should  be  dropped  in  the  stick  quietly, 
without  the  nervous  haste  that  produces  false  mo- 
tions. A  quick  compositor  never  seems  in  a  hurry ; 
he  never  allows  his  animation  to  reach  a  fidgetiness 
that  deprives  him  of  the  perfect  control  of  his  hand. 
False  motions  come  from  excessive  eagerness  to  be 
fast  before  the  hands  have  been  taught  to  keep 
their  proper  pace.  The  novice  should  make  haste 
slowly.  He  should  set  type  quietly  and  steadily, 
refrain  from  talking,  and  give  entire  attention  to 
composition.  Nerves  must  be  husbanded  as  well 


100  Importance  of  good  tools 

as  muscles.  Any  habit  that  dulls  the  sensibilities 
or  disturbs  tranquillity  is  always  followed  by  some 
mental  depression  and  feebleness  in  performance. 

Quick  motions  can  be  acquired  by  working  stead- 
ily. To  work  actively  for  a  few  hours  and  but 
languidly  for  the  remainder  of  the  day  will  not  pro- 
duce the  desired  speed.  If  a  novice  finds  that  he 
cannot  set  more  than  five  hundred  ems  in  an  hour 
without  undue  exertion  and  a  tendency  to  false 
motions,  he  should  not  attempt  more,  but  he  should 
not  allow  himself  to  do  less  than  five  hundred.  If 
he  works  day  after  day  with  reasonable  earnest- 
ness, he  will  gradually  increase  performance  and 
will  do  more  work  with  less  effort.  The  error  of 
many  apprentices  begins  with  the  unreasonable 
expectation  that  they  can  acquire  speed  quickly. 
They  try  to  push  execution  beyond  ability,  and  in 
so  doing  acquire  the  bad  habit  of  false  motions, 
and  become  slow  compositors  for  life. 

When  the  compositor  can  control  his  time,  he 
should  do  routine  work  at  set  hours,  distributing 
and  correcting  at  the  end  of  the  day. 

A  bright  and  neat-fitting  steel  composing-rule,  a 
polished  stick,  and  a  clean  case  free  from  dust  are 
great  aids  to  composition.  Good  light  is  valuable. 
Light  is  not  always  to  be  controlled,  but  the  rule, 
stick,  and  case  may  be.  The  workman  is  known 
by  his  tools.  A  rusted  stick  or  a  short  or  crooked 
rule  will  diminish  the  performance  of  any  workman. 
Expert  compositors  own  their  own  sticks  and  rules, 


Emptying  type  from  stick  101 

and  will  use  no  other.  They  get  used  to  their  size, 
weight,  and  feeling,  and  say  that  they  can  do  more 
work  with  them  than  with  other  sticks  and  rules 
apparently  as  good. 

To  seize  a  type  readily,  that  type  should  be  al- 
lowed to  rest  exactly  where  it  falls  in  the  box  during 
the  process  of  distribution.  The  case  should  not 
be  snaken  up,  nor  should  the  little  mounds  formed 
by  distribution  be  smoothed  down.  When  types 
are  shaken  up  or  flattened  down  in  parallel  rows,  it 
is  difficult  to  snap  them  up.  The  compositor  has 
to  pry  them  up,  and  perhaps  to  turn  them  around 
nick  out  or  head  up,  before  they  can  be  laid  in 
the  stick. 

The  fastest  compositors,  or  those  who  can  be 
fast  when  they  choose,  do  not  usually  set  the  largest 
quantity  of  type  in  a  week.  In  the  long  race,  the 
steadier  men  beat  them  in  performance  by  their 
superior  persistence.  The  worst  compositors— and 
all  who  make  foul  proofs  may  be  so  considered — 
are  usually  the  greatest  talkers  at  work. 

All  the  material  needed  for  the  day  should  be  in 
or  near  the  case  before  beginning  work.  To  stop 
composition  to  distribute,  or  to  search  for  leads, 
quads,  and  extra  sorts,  is  always  a  hindrance. 

The  emptying  of  composed  type  in  a  stick  calls 
for  some  sleight  of  hand,  at  which  the  young  com- 
positor often  fails.  His  fault  comes  from  gripping 
too  tightly  the  lines  between  his  thumbs  and  fore- 
fingers, and  neglecting  the  pressure  of  the  middle 


102          Method  of  making  measures 

fingers  at  the  ends  of  the  lines,  where  pressure  is 
more  needed.  He  should  begin  by  taking  out  one 
line  only.  "When  he  takes  up  two  or  more  lines, 
he  will  soon  learn  where  to  apply  the  pressure  and 
how  to  balance  the  type.  As  soon  as  the  type  is 


put  upon  the  galley  he  should  press  it  up  with  his 
composing-rule,  and  leave  it  standing  squarely  on 
its  feet. 

Making  up  the  stick,  or  adjusting  the  stick  by 
its  slide  and  screw  to  the  proper  width  of  a  given 
measure,  is  a  work  of  exactness  that  cannot  be 
safely  intrusted  to  a  young  compositor.  When 
two  or  more  compositors  are  employed  on  the  same 
work,  their  sticks  should  be  made  up  uniformly. 
A  very  slight  variation  of  width  in  the  making  up 
of  two  or  more  sticks,  followed  by  other  slight 
variations  in  justification,  will  give  much  trouble 
when  the  matter  is  put  on  stone  or  on  press.  Ex- 
actness of  measure  is  best  secured  by  the  use  of  a 
solid  metal  gauge,  about  four  picas  thick,  against 
which  the  slide  is  pushed  until  it  is  tight.  When 
a  solid  metal  gauge  is  not  to  be  had,  the  width  of 
the  measure  can  be  formed  from  a  predetermined 


Reading  of  type  in  the  stick  103 

number  of  large  em  quadrats,  against  which  the 
slide  must  be  set  tightly.  A  line  of  the  letter  m, 
frequently  used,  may  not  be  so  accurate,  for  the 
greater  the  number  of  pieces,  the  greater  the  lia- 
bility to  inaccuracy  from  unequal  rubbing  at  the 
foundry  or  from  the  possible  bending  or  corner- 
bruising  of  the  types.  To  make  up  measure  with 
leads  and  a  thin  cardboard  between  the  lead  and 
the  slide  is  another  unsafe  method  for  any  com- 
position in  which  more  than  one  stick  will  be  used. 
Making  measure  by  the  gauge  of  dead  matter  is 
equally  objectionable.  A  fixed  gauge  should  be 
used  to  test  the  stick  as  well  as  to  form  the  measure. 
If  this  gauge  shows  that  the  stick  is  tight  at  one 
end  of  the  slide  and  loose  at  the  other,  it  is  not 
true  and  should  be  rejected.  Spacing  too  tight, 
dropping  the  stick  on  the  floor,  making  use  of  the 
plate  of  the  stick  as  a  turnkey,  are  some  of  the 
careless  practices  that  make  sticks  untrue. 


^pe  onf  86j:  oj.  pis  bi^cqce  TIJ 
&  GJGETIJ  bLOOj.  junsp  tfcdniLe  ^pi 
nbgiqe  go/Air    J,JJG  Goiuboajjm  /qio 
in  fjiJ8  jyjrre^Lg^iojj'  J8  sT'iGfrqiug  oj. 

IIJ  f  JJG  SfJGJ^  ^8  f  JJGX  tfbbGtfL 


The  young  compositor  should  read  over  every 
line  as  soon  as  he  sets  it,  and  at  once  correct  any 
detected  error.  Before  he  empties  the  matter  on 
the  galley  he  should  read  it  again,  looking  for  outs 


104  Recent  mannerisms 

and  doublets.  The  time  given  to  correction  in  the 
stick  is  not  time  lost.  It  is  easier  to  correct  there 
than  on  the  galley  or  the  stone,  and  it  is  worth  a 
deal  of  trouble  to  acquire  the  reputation  of  a  clean 
compositor. 

The  making  of  pi  is  frequently  unavoidable.  A 
standing  rule  in  many  printing-houses  is  that  pi 
must  be  distributed  on  the  day  it  is  made.  When 
the  maker  of  this  pi  is  unknown,  it  is  customary  to 
divide  it  equally  among  all  the  compositors  for 
immediate  distribution.  The  operation  of  this  rule 
seems  harsh,  but  it  is  for  the  common  advantage. 
The  small  heap  of  pi  that  remains  undistributed 
overnight  invites  more  carelessness ;  it  is  probable 
that  it  will  be  larger  at  the  end  of  the  next  day. 

RECENT    MANNERISMS 

A  new  fashion  in  typography  directs  that  the  first 
line  of  every  paragraph,  whether  at  the  beginning, 
middle,  or  ending  of  a  chapter,  shall  begin  flush  at 
the  left  side  of  the  measure.  The  only  indication 
that  the  line  which  is  so  treated  begins  a  new  para- 
graph is  to  be  found  in  the  blank  that  may  be 
left  in  the  last  line  of  the  preceding  paragraph. 
When  that  line  is  full,  there  is  no  indication,  and 
the  two  intended  paragraphs  are  made  one.  For 
this  reason  the  suppression  of  the  em  quadrat  as 
the  mark  of  paragraph  indention  is  not  a  safe  prac- 
tice. It  may  be  and  often  is  proper  enough  when 


Eagged  endings  to  lines  105 

there  is  a  full  white  line  over  the  first  line  of  any 
paragraph,  but  not  otherwise.  The  em  quadrat 
has  been  for  years  the  established  mark  of  para- 
graph indention,  and  it  can  be  omitted  with  safety 
only  when  it  is  so  ordered. 

Ragged  endings  at  the  right  side  of  all  the  lines 
of  the  text,  as  is  unavoidable  in  type- writing,  is 
another  novelty.     This  new  mannerism  lessens 
the  labor  of  spacing,  but  it  makes  an  unsymmetri- 
cal  page  that  is  unpleasing  to  the-  reader.     Print 
is  preferred  to  manuscript  because  it  is  symmetri- 
cal and  orderly  as  well  as  more  readable.     To 
reproduce  in  print  the  irregularities  of  autographic 
work  is  an  unwise  rejection  of  the  uniformity 
that  is  the  great  merit  of  letterpress  printing. 
Lines  of  ragged  outline  may  attract  attention  to 
an  advertisement  or  an  ephemeral  pamphlet,  but 
to  the  reader  this  raggedness  seems  slovenly. 

Unleaded  and  thin-spaced  composition  is  preferred 
by  the  disciples  of  William  Morris,  but  it  is  not  liked 
by  the  average  reader,  who  does  need  a  perceptible 
white  blank  between  words  or  lines  of  print.  During 
the  fifteenth  century,  when  thin  leads  and  graduated 
spaces  were  almost  unknown  and  but  little  used,  the 
reading  world  had  its  surfeit  of  close-spaced  and  solid 
type-setting.  "  It  is  not  probable  that  readers  of  this 
century  can  be  educated  to  relish  a  practice  that  then 
had  no  excuse  but  that  of  unavoidability ."  Words  can 
be  spaced  and  lines  can  be  leaded  too  widely,  but  a  per- 
ceptible break  of  white  between  words  and  lines  at 
least  as  great  as  the  white  between  the  body-marks  or 


106      Solid  and  thin-spaced  composition 

stems  of  single  letters  is  needed  for  easy  reading.  A 
solid  and  very  thin-spaced  composition  may  be  quite 
acceptable  in  the  text  of  types  on  14-point  and  larger 
bodies,  when  these  types  have  been  properly  printed 
on  damp  paper,  for  under  these  conditions  ordinary 
eyesight  can  discern  the  shape  of  each  character,  but 
it  is  not  acceptable  in  any  body  of  small  type  that  has 
been  printed  on  dry  and  coated  paper,  where  the  eye 
has  to  guess  at  the  words  and  does  not  clearly  discern 
the  forms  of  single  types. 

The  dense  huddling  of  lines  of  capital  letters,  nar- 
rowly spaced  and  without  any  leads,  and  the  jam- 
ming of  text  types  close  against  illustrations  or  up 

CAPITAL  LETTERS  NEEDLESSLY 
HUDDLED  BY  THIN  SPACING  AND 
OMISSION  OF  SEPARATING  LEADS 

to  large  initial  letters  or  surrounding  borders,  are 
equally  objectionable.  The  relation  of  letters  to 
one  another  should  not  purposely  be  made  difficult 
when  they  can  be  composed  to  be  read  at  a  glance. 
Illustrations  of  all  kinds,  whether  in  the  form  of 
diagrams,  initial  letters,  head-bands,  or  borders, 
need  a  decent  relief  of  white  to  show  their  value. 
Ruskiii  wisely  says  that  "  the  eye  is  not  saddened 
by  quantity  of  white,  but  it  is  saddened  and  should 
be  offended  by  quantity  of  black.'7  This  remark 
can  be  properly  extended  to  the  mutual  interfer- 
ence of  bold-faced  types,  or  to  decorations  of  any 
kind  when  they  crowd  too  close  against  letters. 


Capital  letters  unwisely  spaced       107 

Over-wide  spacing  of  single  types,  of  both  capitals 
and  lower-case  letters,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
the  running  title  of  a  page  or  every  line  in  a  page 
of  display  fill  the  measure,  is  another  caprice.  The 
advantage  to  be  gained  by  this  explosive  treatment 
of  types  is  not  apparent.  It  is  never  done  in  the 

THEOVER-WIDESPACING 
OFSINGLETYPESTHAT 
DISLOCATESTHEWORDS 
ANDPRODUCESCONFUSION 

text  of  a  book  in  short  lines  of  dialogue  matter  or 
in  poetry.  It  does  not  make  clearer  or  more  sym- 
metrical the  running  title  or  any  subheading.  It 
does  not  add  to  the  comeliness  of  a  modern  book, 
even  if  it  was  a  style  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  uncouth  letters  now  provided  by  type-found- 
ers for  display  sometimes  appear  in  the  subhead- 
ings of  magazines,  but  the  wise  publisher  forbids 
their  appearance  in  a  library  book.1  The  reader 
and  the  student  have  small  reason  to  complain  of 
any  ineffectiveness  in  the  modest  types  that  have 
been  used  for  years  with  advantage  to  make  clear 
the  difference  between  the  headings  and  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  a  book,  and  they  have  good  cause  to 

i  Advertisers  are  largely  re-  attention.  This  new  typographic 

sponsible  for  these  letters.  They  practice  of  "getting  ahead  "of 

properly  represent  in  type  the  all  rivals  is  damaging  to  the  seri- 

screaming   "  barker  "  before  a  ous  book,  for  it  produces  the 

paltry  show,  or  the  "  hustler  "  impression  that  there  is  proba- 

who  breaks  up  an  interview  and  bly  an  inferiority  in  matter  that 

insists  on  first  and  immediate  is  heralded  by  needless  display. 


108 


Injudicious  use  of  borders 


protest  against  rude  types  that  deform  printing. 
The  title-page  and  the  subheadings  of  a  book  may 
be  judiciously  decorated  by  inclosing  their  words 
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  in  a  rule  border  or  in 

many  panels  of  brass 
rule  formed  of  single 
or  parallel  hair-lines, 
but  in  some  instances 
the  rule  is  of  much 
bolder  face  than  the 
type  within,  and  more 


Illustration  of  a  bor- 
der rule  that  makes  un- 
sightly types  within. 
The  value  of  black  lines 
as  a  border  for  small 
type,  or  under  running 
titles,  or  between  para- 
graphs, is  not  apparent 
in  the  composition  of 
any  book  of  worth  or 
of  permanent  value. 


strikingly  attracts  the 
notice  of  the  reader. 
It  often  requires  ener- 


getic protest  from  author  and  publisher,  the  real 
sponsors  of  the  book,  to  prevent  a  young  composi- 
tor from  adorning  its 
subheadings  with  the 

twisted  and  fantastic     ^^^_ 

Example    of    th< 
new  way  of  mak- 
ng  up  a  measure 
or   the   types  in- 
border  so  that 


black  borders  that  are 
now  in  fashion  in  Ger- 
many, or  from  over- 


*the  types  will 
lose    to    border.^? 


loading  the  book  with 
hair-line  rules  that 
often  have  attached 
scraps  of  decoration. 
This  unwise  fond- 
ness for  ornamentation  often  induces  the  amateur 
to  fill  the  blanks  in  the  last  lines  of  paragraphs 
or  on  each  side  of  the  running  title  of  a  modern 


Improper  ornamentation  109 

book  with  petty  figments  of  bordering.  There  are 
books  on  medieval  subjects,  and  some  on  modern 
subjects,  in  which  decoration  of  this  kind  may  be  a 
grace,  but  it  should  be  selected  with  caution.  In  the 
larger  part  of  modern  books  so  treated,  this  filling 
up  of  all  blanks  with  decoration  is  a  positive  fault. 
Ornamented  pages  intended  for  printing  in  black 
ink  seldom  need  a  border  bolder  than  the  types 
within.  It  should  not  be  necessary  to  repeat  the 
platitude  that  the  book  is  bought  to  be  read  for 
the  thought  of  the  author  and  not  to  see  the  fancies 


REMAEKS 

ON    THE     


ART    OF   MAKING   DISPLAY    EXTREMELY 
-DIFFICULT   AND    EXPENSIVE- 

-   WITHOUT 

—  IMPROVEMENT  TO  ITS  CLEARNESS  OR  BEAUTY,  - 
-  AND  VERY  MUCH  TO  THE  DAMAGE    - 

OF  ITS  SALABILITY 


of  the  printer  or  decorator,  but  it  seems  to  be 
needed.  A  young  compositor  should  always  ob- 
serve this  rule  of  all  architects :  "You  may  orna- 
ment construction ;  you  must  not  construct  orna- 
ment." Types  that  represent  words  and  thought 
must  have  first  place  j  ornamentation  of  any  kind 
should  be  subordinate. 


110         Simple  methods  most  approved 

These  mannerisms  have  been  introduced  during 
the  last  twenty  years.  It  is  not  unsafe  to  hazard 
the  assertion  that  before  another  twenty  years  has 
passed  they  will  be  out  of  fashion,  and  the  book 
containing  them  will  be  in  lasting  discredit. 

When  a  printer  is  plainly  directed  to  make  use 
of  one  or  more  of  these  mannerisms,  he  should  do 
so  without  question  or  remark,  for  it  is  his  plain 
duty  to  do  what  he  is  told,  and  to  do  it  intelli- 
gently and  helpfully,  whether  he  does  or  does  not 
like  the  style ;  but  when  he  has  a  free  hand  and 
is  asked  to  do  the  composition  of  a  new  book  in 
workmanlike  manner,  he  will  make  no  mistake  in 
adhering  to  methods  of  simplicity  that  have  pre- 
vailed for  centuries.  It  will  be  safer  to  accept  the 
leadership  of  Bodoni  and  Didot,  of  Pickering  and 
Whittingham,  than  that  of  many  recent  reformers 
of  typography. 


HENRY    O.     HOUGHTC^ 


IV 


COMPOSITION  OF  BOOKS 

Title-page  .  .  .  Preface  matter  .  .  .  Chapter  headings  and 
synopsis  .  .  .  Subheadings  .  .  .  Extracts  .  .  .  Notes  and 
illustrations  .  .  .  Running  titles  and  paging  .  .  .  Poetry 
Appendix  and  index  .  .  .  Initials  .  .  .  Head-bands,  etc. 


TITLE-PAGE 


OMAN  capitals  of  regular  form 
in  uneven  lines  of  open  dis- 
play are  preferred  for  the  title- 
page  by  the  largest  number  of 
publishers.  The  lower-case  of 
roman  and  italic  and  the  capi- 
tals of  italic  are  other  tolerated 
styles,  but  title-pages  exclusively  in  any  one  of  these 
series  are  not  common,  A  title-page  in  roman  capi- 
tals displayed  in  a  plain  manner  is  most  satisfactory 
for  the  ordinary  book,  and  it  is  for  the  plain  title 
111 


112       Copy  for  a  title-page  needs  study 

only  that  these  brief  remarks  are  made.  Properly 
selected,  their  arrangement  gives  least  trouble  to 
the  compositor. 

The  type  of  the  title  should  be  of  the  same  face 
as  that  of  the  text.  This  is  easier  said  than  done, 
for  there  are  few  text  types  provided  with  larger 
sizes  of  precisely  the  same  face  and  fitted  for  words 
and  lines  of  different  length.  The  compositor  must 
do  the  best  he  can  with  the  faces  and  styles  that 
are  available,  but  he  must  avoid  harsh  contrasts. 
He  should  understand  at  the  outset  that  his  com- 
position will  be  most  satisfactory  when  the  types 
selected  show  mutual  relation.  Even  one  line  of 
italic  capitals  in  a  composition  otherwise  of  roman 
capitals  only  will  make  discord.  A  title-page  may 
be  entirely  in  capitals  or  entirely  in  lower-case 
(initial  letters  excepted),  either  in  roman  or  italic, 
but  two  series  can  seldom  be  used  together.1 

The  copy  for  title-page  matter  should  be  studied 
before  the  first  line  is  put  in  type.  The  compositor 
should  predetermine  how  many  lines  and  how  much 

1  Exception  may  be  allowed  the  name  of  a  book  that  treats 
for  a  word  that  calls  for  pecu-  of  old  English  literature,  but  it 
liar  emphasis,  for  honorary  titles  is  not  pleasing  in  an  imprint  or 
in  separate  lines,  and  for  a  line  for  any  other  short  line.  The 
of  display  with  arabic  figures,  uniformity  of  face  that  is  the 
Small  capitals  that  are  almost  great  merit  of  a  page  of  text 
unreadable  may  be  supplanted  should  be  maintained  in  a  page 
with  small  but  more  readable  of  title.  To  mix  two  faces  de- 
lower-case.  Eeal  old  English  stroys  the  bookish  feature ;  it  de- 
black-letter  of  large  size  may  be  grades  the  title  to  the  level  of 
selected,  in  a  title-page  other-  a  newspaper  advertisement  or  a 
wise  of  roman  capitals  only,  for  handbill. 


iiiminmiiiimmiii 


Suggestions  for  sketches  of  titles. 


114    An  old  method  of  setting  title-pages 

blank  between  lines  are  really  needed.  He  should 
begin  by  sketching  on  a  bit  of  paper  the  relative 
size  and  length  of  the  proposed  lines.  The  first 
lesson  to  be  learned  by  him  is  that  the  attractive- 
ness of  a  title-page  depends  as  much  on  the  proper 
distribution  of  blank  space  as  on  the  proper  display 
of  important  words. 

Blanks  of  different  widths  are  needed  between 
distinct  divisions  of  subject-matter— a  broad  blank 
between  those  that  are  not  closely  related,  and  a 
narrower  one  between  those  that  are.  To  display 
the  matter  in  the  manner  of  a  handbill  by  making 
frequent  catch-lines  and  putting  blanks  of  the  same 
width  between  all  the  divisions  will  spoil  any  title. 
The  broadest  blank  in  titles  without  device  or  illus- 
tration should  be  above  the  publisher's  imprint. 
Catch-lines  have  to  be  selected  for  some  title-pages, 
but  they  should  not  be  too  frequent  or  in  too  small 
type.  When  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  all  the  words 
in  a  title-page  should  be  in  types  that  are  as  reada- 
ble as  those  of  the  text.1 

An  old  method  of  constructing  a  title-page,  not 
yet  out  of  fashion  (usually  done  in  obedience  to  or- 
der of  author),  was  to  plan  it  with  many  distinct 
lines,  and  to  crowd  the  long  name  of  the  book  in 

1  Large  type  is  not  possible  for  play.  The  strong  contrast  pro- 
prolix  honorary  titles,  nor  for  duced  by  putting  a  catch-line  of 
some  details  added  by  the  pub-  small  capitals  of  nonpareil  above 
lisher,  but  it  is  practicable  to  or  below  a  large  two-line  letter, 
make  all  important  words  no-  once  a  grace,  is  now  a  real  fault, 
ticeable.  Pettiness  should  be  The  reader  values  readability 
avoided  as  much  as  overbold  dis-  more  than  he  does  ingenuity. 


Type  for  main  line  of  display         115 

one  bold  line  of  condensed  type.  The  short  name 
had  its  types  spaced  out  to  fill  the  line,  for  a  full 
line  was  rated  of  first  importance.  These  meth- 
ods did  not  always  give  to  the  title  the  desired 
boldness  and  clearness ;  in  many  books  they  made 
it  feeble  and  incoherent.  A  contrast  of  the  old 
with  the  new  method  of  treating  the  title  is  pre- 
sented on  the  following  pages. 

The  name  by  which  the  book  will  be  identified 
should  be  the  boldest  line,  and  the  words  for  this 
line  are  usually  prescribed  by  the  author.  As  this 
line  determines  the  size  of  other  lines,  it  should  be 
the  one  first  set.  Its  length  or  shortness  is  not  of 
first  importance,  as  is  often  supposed,  but  its  bold- 
ness is :  it  should  be  bold  enough  to  arrest  atten- 
tion at  the  first  glance.  Condensed  types  have  to 
be  selected  for  this  line  when  the  author  insists  on 
putting  many  words  in  one  line,  but  this  shape  of 
type  should  be  avoided  when  it  is  possible.  Types 
slightly  compressed  are  tolerated  by  the  critical, 
but  not  when  they  are  visibly  pinched.  At  their 
best  when  their  letters  are  not  spaced,  they  are 
never  entirely  pleasing  either  for  a  scant  or  a 
crowded  title.  A  two-line  type  of  the  standard  or 
regular  width  is  clearer  than  a  condensed  type  of 
greater  height,  and  should  be  preferred. 

When  the  letters  for  the  main  line  of  display  are 
few,  they  may  be  in  one  short  line,  but  when  there 
are  too  many  for  one  line,  and  condensed  letter  is 
forbidden,  they  may  be  arranged  in  two  lines.  The 


A  HISTORY 

OF 

CLASSICAL  GREEK  LITERATURE 

BY    THE 

REV.  J.  P.  MAHAFFY,  MA 

KNIGHT  OF  THE  ORDER  OF  THE  REDEEMER 
FELLOW  AND  PROF.  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  TRIN.  COLL.  DUBLIN 

HON.  FELLOW  OF  QUEEN'S  COLL.  OXFORD 
AUTHOR  OF  'SOCIAL  LIFE  IN  GREECE*  'PROLEGOMENA  TO  ANCIENT  HISTORV' 

•THE  GREEK  WORLD  UNDER  ROMAN  SWAY' ETC 
IN    TWO     VOLUMES 

VOL.  II.   PART  I. 

THE    PROSE   WRITERS 

FROM    HERODOTUS    TO    PLATO 

THIRD    EDITION,    REVISED    THROUGHOUT 


Conbon 
MACMILLAN    AND    CO. 

AND    NEW    YORK 
1890 

All    rigfttt    reserved 


A    HISTORY    OF 

CLASSICAL   GREEK 
LITERATURE 


BY    THE 

REV.  J.  P.  MAHAFFY,  M.  A. 

Knight  of  the  Order  of  the  Redeemer;  Fellow  and  Pro- 
fessor of  Ancient  History,  Trinity  College.  Dublin;  Hon- 
orary Fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford ;  Author  of 
"  Social  I-ife  in  Greece,"  "  Prolegomena  to  Ancient  His- 
tory," "Greek  Life  and  Thought,"  "Rambles  and  Studies 
in  Greece,"  "  The  Greek  World  under  Roman  Sway,"  etc. 


IN    TWO  VOLUMES.        VOLUME    II.      PART   I. 

THE   PROSE  WRITERS 

FROM    HERODOTUS    TO    PLATO 

THIRD  EDITION 

REVISED  THROUGHOUT 


LONDON 

MACMILLAN  AND  CO. 

AND  NEW  YORK 

1890 
A II  rights  reserved 


118       Long  and  short  lines  of  display 

two  lines  so  picked  out  should  be  of  the  same  face 
and  nearly,  if  not  exactly,  of  the  same  size.  They 
should  not  be  huddled:  the  blank  between  them 
should  be  about  as  wide  as  the  height  of  the  type 
selected.1  If  these  meeting  lines  are  of  the  same 
length,  the  letters  of  one  line  may  be  thin-spaced 
to  make  it  a  trifle  longer,  but  the  spacing  should 
be  slight,  so  that  its  increased  width  will  not  be  at 
once  apparent.2  The  main  line  is  well  placed  when 
it  appears  as  the  second  or  third  line  on  the  page. 
A  title  with  its  largest  and  longest  line  at  the  top 
of  the  page  is  always  unbalanced  and  top-heavy. 
When  copy  will  allow,  the  introductory  article  THE 
or  A  may  be  the  first  short  line. 


1  This  suggestion  opposes  the 
practice  of  some  designers  who 
separate  lines  of  large  letters 
with  very  thin  lanes  of  white 
space.    This  is  often  done  even 
when  there  is  abundance  of  un- 
filled space  in  other  quarters  of 
the    page.     Letters    so   treated 
would  be  more  readable  if  they 
were  shortened   in  height  and 
more  blank  were  put  between 
lines.    The  eye  has  been  accus- 
tomed to  seeing  in  roman  lower- 
case type  decidedly  greater  relief 
of  white  space  above  and  below 
each  line  than  there  is  within 
the  letter.     This  relief  of  white 
space  is  equally  needed  for  capi- 
tal letters;  they  need  as  much 
space  without  as  within. 

2  The  first  line  may  be  long 
and  the  second  line   short,  or 
vice  versa,  but  it  is  desirable  that 


words  closely  related  in  sense 
shall  be  kept  in  the  same  line. 
It  is  not  always  necessary  that 
two  meeting  lines  of  display 
shall  be  uneven  as  to  length. 
>Vhen  the  words  in  the  lines  are 
of  equal  importance,  they  should 
be  treated  in  the  same  manner, 
and  be  spaced  or  unspaced  to 
have  equal  distinction,  even  if 
they  are  of  the  same  length. 
Two  contiguous  short  display 
lines  of  equal  length  are  not  a 
fault,  but  the  display  will  be 
faulty  if  one  line  is  purposely 
made  too  large  and  the  other  too 
small.  The  old  rule  that  re- 
quired a  bold  full  line  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  short  inconspicuous 
line,  even  when  it  gave  false 
value  to  the  words  of  the  author, 
is  not  observed  now  by  the  dis- 
creet publisher. 


THE 

GRAMMAR 

OF 

ENGLISH  GRAMMARS 


THE 

GRAMMAR  OF 
ENGLISH   GRAMMARS 


FIFTY  YEARS 
FIFTY  YEARS  AMONG  AUTHORS,     AMONG  AUTHORS,  BOOKS 

BOOKS  AND  PUBLISHERS  AND   PUBLISHERS 


THE  ART  OF  ILLUSTRATION 

grtt  0* 


THE  ART  OF 

ILLUSTRATION 


SENTIMENTAL  JOURNEY 

THROUGH 

FRANCE    AND    ITALY 


SENTIMENTAL  JOURNEY 

THROUGH  FRANCE 

AND  ITALY 


CRITICAL  AND  MISCELLANEOUS 

ESSAYS 


CRITICAL 
AND  MISCELLANEOUS 

ESSAYS 


ONE  HUNDRED  BOOKS 

FAMOUS  IN 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

WITH 


ONE   HUNDRED   BOOKS 
FAMOUS  IN 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

WITH  FACSIMILES 'OF 
THE   TITLE-PAGES 


Old  method. 


Modern  method. 


120    Expression  of  words  of  first  importance 

It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  compose  in  an  orderly 
manner  the  words  prescribed  when  the  author  re- 
quires them  in  one  full  line.  If  the  letters  for  this 
line  are  too  few,  a  type  unduly  large  must  be  used. 
If  smaller  type  is  selected,  the  line  will  be  short 
and  feeble  and  the  letters  must  be  spaced,  but  spac- 
ing to  full  width  of  measure  will  make  the  line  still 
feebler.  Attaching  a  large  capital  of  the  same  face 
as  an  initial  letter  will  make  it  practically  a  line  of 
capitals  and  small  capitals  (never  pleasing  in  a  title- 
page),  that  does  not  materially  increase  its  boldness. 
Nor  is  a  large  engraved  initial  of  square  form  help- 
ful j  most  serviceable  at  the  head  of  solid  text  type, 
it  always  seems  discordant  and  out  of  place  in  the 
open  title-page. 

If  the  letters  in  the  line  are  too  many,  condensed 
type  must  be  selected,  but  pinched  letters  make  a 
discord  with  those  of  standard  width.  When  two 
letters  only  of  a  type  of  proper  size  and  shape  will 
not  come  in,  the  measure  should  be  widened  to  take 
them  in.  If  this  is  not  practicable,  set  the  words  in 
two  lines.  When  types  have  been  chosen  of  a  size 
to  give  a  proper  showing  to  words,  irrespective  of 
the  length  or  shortness  of  lines,  and  other  details  of 
composition  are  fairly  adjusted,  the  result  will  sel- 
dom be  unsatisfactory.  Old-fashioned  rules  about 
display  often  have  to  be  put  aside.  They  should 
not  be  maintained  when  they  produce  mean  display. 
It  is  of  first  importance  that  the  words  in  a  title  be 
properly  presented,  even  if  the  old  rules  are  violated. 


Not  the  showing  of  arbitrary  rules     121 

The  copy  for  a  title-page  may  specify  for  its  main 
line  not  one,  but  four  or  more  distinct  words,  all 
of  equal  importance  and  all  requiring  equal  promi- 
nence. It  may  be  impossible  to  give  them  proper 
prominence  in  one  line  or  even  in  two  lines.  By 
old  methods  words  of  this  description  were  set  in 
two  lines— the  first  line  in  a  very  large  type,  and 
the  second  in  a  smaller  type,  after  this  fashion : 

A   CRITICAL   REVIEW 

OF 

PAINTERS  DESIGNERS 

ETCHERS   AND  ENGRAVERS 

The  only  excuse  for  making  this  needless  distinc- 
tion in  the  size  of  type  is  the  unreasonable  rule 
that  required  two  meeting  lines  to  be  unequal  in 
size  and  in  length.  The  new  method  of  treating 
these  words  for  display  is  simpler,  much  less  trou- 
blesome, and  more  satisfactory  to  the  author. 

A  CRITICAL   REVIEW  OF 

PAINTERS 
DESIGNERS 
ETCHERS  AND 
ENGRAVERS 


122         Hair-spacing  of  capital  letters 

This  treatment  gives  equality  to  all  the  words,  and 
the  initial  letters  of  each  word  line  vertically,  re- 
gardless of  their  irregular  endings. 

All  other  short  lines  of  a  title-page  can  be  cen- 
tred by  putting  equal  blanks  on  each  side  of  every 
line.  The  needed  irregularity  is  produced  by  dif- 
ferent sizes  of  type  that  make  the  lines  of  unequal 
length,  but  there  should  be  some  symmetry  in  the 
apparent  irregularity ;  a  pencil  line  drawn  diago- 
nally from  the  end  of  a  short  to  the  end  of  the 
longest  line  should  touch  or  nearly  touch  the  ends 
of  the  intermediate  lines.  A  hair-spacing  of  one  or 
more  intermediate  lines  may  be  needed. 

When  the  main  line  has  to  be  widely  spaced,  as 
in  a  title-page  of  the  Puritan  or  seventeenth-cen- 
tury style,  other  lines  of  display  should  be  wide- 
spaced,  and  broad  blanks  put  between  the  lines 
above  and  below  the  main  line.  The  space  between 
single  types  in  any  line  of  display  should  be  much 
narrower  than  that  of  its  proximate  blanks.  The 
wide  spacing  of  single  types  when  there  are  narrow 
blanks  above  and  below  is  unpleasing,  for  it  makes 
the  subject-matter  incoherent. 

Small  capitals  that  have  little  interior  white  space 
may  need  hair-spacing  to  make  them  more  distinct. 
An  old  rule  required  every  line  in  the  title  to  be 
spaced  when  the  main  line  had  been  spaced.  This 
treatment  is  not  always  practicable,  but  it  could  be 
observed  much  oftener  than  has  been  done,  and 
with  advantage  to  many  title-pages. 


Arabic  figures  improper  with  capitals     123 

Lines  of  secondary  display  should  not  be  frequent, 
nor  set  in  types  so  large  as  to  reduce  the'impor- 
tance  of  the  main  line  and  to  encroach  on  the  wide 
blanks  that  are  needed  between  the  regular  divi- 
sions. Grouping  of  details  in  a  synopsis  under 
the  name  of  the  book  in  readable  capitals,  and  in 
short  lines  of  a  squared  form  or  in  a  diamond  or 
half-diamond  arrangement,  is  the  more  approved 
practice.  The  attractiveness  of  a  title-page  is  largely 
in  the  visible  coherence  of  its  words.  Wide  blanks 
that  separate  divisions  not  closely  related,  and  nar- 
row blanks  that  combine  those  that  are  related,  are 
greater  aids  to  a  comprehension  of  subject-matter 
than  many  lines  of  bold  type. 

The  names  of  author,  editor  or  translator,  and  de- 
signer may  be  in  types  of  graduated  size  to  indicate 
the  relative  value  of  their  contributions,  but  to  pre- 
serve irregularity  of  outline  it  may  be  necessary  to 
neglect  the  nice  distinctions  intended  to  be  pro- 
duced by  different  sizes  of  type.  A  general  effect 
of  irregularity  should  be  maintained  even  if  those 
distinctions  are  not  at  once  noticeable  and  some 
lines  are  made  a  trifle  short  or  long. 

Arabic  figures  must  be  avoided  in  all  lines  of 
capitals.  Figures  of  old-style  face  are  always  mean 
mates  in  the  same  line  with  their  broad  and  tall 
capitals,  nor  is  any  figure  of  modern  cut  on  the 
en  body  pleasing  in  a  line  of  capitals  of  regular 
width.  Roman  numerals  or  spelled-out  words  are 
imperative  in  lines  of  capitals  for  all  amounts  but 


124  Obtrusiveness  of  the  motto 

those  of  dates,  yet  the  date  following  a  publisher's 
imprinf,  always  in  a  separate  line,  may  be  in  arabic 
figures  with  propriety. 

When  the  title-page  is  crowded  with  much  matter, 
the  prefixed  BY  before  the  name  of  the  author  may 
be  set  in  the  same  line  and  in  the  same  type.  Abbre- 
viations of  short  honorary  titles  following  the  name 
may  appear  with  that  name  in  the  same  type  and 
same  line,  but  when  there  are  many  honorary  titles 
this  prefixed  BY  has  to  be  in  a  separate  line.  Hon- 
orary titles  are  not  pleasing  in  small  capitals  by 
the  side  of  the  name ;  they  may  be  spelled  out,  to 
appear  in  a  separate  line  below  the  name,  in  small 
capitals  or  in  two  or  more  lines  of  small  lower-case. 
Spaces  are  not  needed  after  the  periods  in  abbrevia- 
tions like  A.B.  and  LL.D.  Custom  requires  the 
name  of  the  author  to  be  in  larger  type  than  that 
given  to  his  coadjutors,  but  there  may  be  special 
reasons  for  neglecting  this  practice.  When  supe- 
rior distinction  is  required  for  an  illustrator,  edi- 
tor, or  translator,  his  name  may  be  larger,  or  even 
appear  in  small  type  as  the  first  line  of  the  page. 

The  motto  of.  a  title-page  always  seems  in  the 
wajr.  It  must  be  placed  where  the  author  directs, 
but  if  put  as  is  usual  in  the  middle  of  the  page,  it 
may  need  a  hair-line  dash  above  and  below  to  sepa- 
rate it  from  other  parts  of  the  title.  When  the 
title  is  crowded,  and  the  author  permits,  it  may  be 
put  at  the  head  of  the  page  or  on  the  leaf  that 
precedes  or  follows  the  title-page.  One  or  two 


Faults  of  overcrowded  titles          125 

lines  of  a  motto  may  be  in  small  capitals ;  three  or 
more  lines  are  better  in  small  lower-case  letters. 
It  always  appears  to  better  advantage  in  a  purposely 
narrowed  measure,  but  modern  practice  does  not 
inclose  it  in  a  border-line.1 

Curved  lines,  ornamental  dashes,  a  sprinkling 
of  odd  initials,  or  decoration  of  any  description, 
should  never  be  added  to  a  title  without  order. 

The  Morris  title  is  made  by  crowding  at  the  head 
of  the  page  all  its  words  in  a  few  lines  of  thin- 
spaced  and  unleaded  capital  letters.  It  is  not  a 
modern  but  an  old  method,  apparently  devised  by 
an  illuminator  who  wanted  nearly  all  the  page  for 
his  own  handiwork.  When  the  blank  so  made  is 
not  filled  with  decoration,  the  page  is  unsightly. 

Explanations  concerning  the  publication  of  the 
book  and  specifications  about  the  edition,  as  of  the 
number  of  copies  printed,  are  usually  put  on  the 
title-page,  but  these  additions  always  prevent  or- 
derly arrangement.  A  displayed  title-page  over- 
crowded with  lines  that  must  be  read  more  slowly 
and  thoughtfully  than  lines  of  the  text  matter  is  a 

l  Two  or  more  long  quotations  ning,  but  the  ungainly  appear- 

selected  to  serve  for  the  motto  ance   of   indented  and   broken 

should  be  put  on  a  separate  page,  lines  will  be  prevented.     When 

and  roman  lower-case  of  a  small  two  or  more  distinct  quotations 

size  is  usually  selected  for  this  appear  on  the  same  page,  they 

purpose.   It  is  not  necessary  that  may  be  separated  by  a  white  line, 

the  lines  of  a  motto  should  be  the  not  by  dashes.     The  reference 

full  width  of  the  measure ;  it  is  to  the  book  from  which  the  quo- 

always  more  pleasing  when  its  tations  have  been  taken  should 

first  and  last  lines  are  full.     This  be  in  a  separate  line,  in  smaller 

may  compel  frequent  overrun-  type,  and  not  preceded  by  a  dash. 


126  Border-lines  for  the  title 

mistake.  It  should  be  so  composed  that  the  hasty 
reader  can  take  in  its  full  meaning  at  a  glance.1 

The  title-page  of  but  few  lines  that  presents  a 
ragged  and  meagre  appearance  may  be  improved 
by  inclosing  it  in  a  brass-rule  border  of  parallel 
hair-lines  or  of  one  firm  line  about  one  point  thick. 
The  bold-faced  rule  with  face  much  thicker  than 
the  stem  of  the  largest  type  in  that  title  is  not  to 
be  commended,  for  it  makes  the  words  within  seem 
insignificant.  The  single  hair-line  border  is  equally 
objectionable,  for  it  is  feeble  and  is  electro  typed 
and  printed  with  difficulty.  Putting  title  matter 
in  two  or  more  panels  of  brass  rule  may  or  may 
not  be  an  improvement  j  it  is  always  a  hazardous 
experiment  that  may  degrade  the  title  instead  of 
improving  it.  The  wishes  of  the  publisher  should 
be  consulted  before  this  experiment  is  tried. 

Some  title-pages  have  their  words  and  phrasing 
so  arranged  that  they  are  difficult  to  put  in  type  in 

1  No  part  of  the  book  is  sub-  position  so  ordered  the  composi- 

jected  to  more  capricious  treat-  tor  can  do  no  more  than  follow 

ment  than  the  title.    Although  specific  directions  given  by  the 

the  largest  number  of  publishers  author.      Even  when  it  is  re- 

and  readers  prefer  the  plain  title*  quested  that  a   new  title-page 

there  are  others   who  ask  for  shall  be  in  imitation  of  a  given 

black-letter  with  medieval  man-  model,   it   is   seldom   that    the 

nerisms,  or  for  eccentricities  of  words  to  be  used  (which  maybe 

arrangement  with   brass   rules  too   few  or  too  many)  can  be 

and  grotesque  types.     To  give  accommodated  to  the  style  of 

directions  or  even  suggestions  that  model.     The  fantastic  com- 

f or  the  composition  of  the  fan-  position  that  may  be  admired  in 

tastic  title  would  be  useless,  for  an  old  book  or  in  the  pamphlets 

the  lover  of  novelty  too  often  of  advertisers  always  seems  out 

wants  his  title-page  in  a  style  of  place  in  any  book  of  perma- 

that  is  entirely  new.     For  com-  nent  interest. 


Types  for  the  dedication  127 

an  orderly  manner  even  when  they  receive  the 
benefit  of  suggestions  from  the  author  and  the  ad- 
vice of  experts.  Every  attempt  at  improvement 
seems  to  make  them  more  unpleasing.  To  prevent 
this  disappointment  the  abandonment  of  display  is 
advised.  Set  the  matter  in  large  type  (all  capitals, 
all  italic,  or  all  lower-case,  as  may  seem  best),  in 
half -diamond  indention,  after  the  methods  of  the 
early  printers,  or  as  a  plain  paragraph  with  hang- 
ing indention.  When  this  can  be  done  without 
gross  faults  of  spacing  or  in  the  division  of  words, 
the  result  will  seldom  be  unsatisfactory.1 

DEDICATION 

The  dedication  is  not  a  necessary  part,  and  is  now 
seldom  required.  When  used,  it  is  put  on  a  sepa- 
rate leaf  with  a  blank  verso,  and  is  oftenest  set  in 
small  capitals  with  all  its  lines  centred,  as  is  done 
in  the  displayed  title-page,  with  large  capitals  only 
for  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  the  book  is 
dedicated.  It  is  never  improved  by  types  of  eccen- 
tricity. The  matter  is  usually  divided  into  lines  of 
unequal  length,  as  may  be  directed  by  the  author, 
but  it  is  most  satisfactory  when  it  does  not  show 
a  marked  irregularity  in  the  length  of  proximate 
lines.  The  short  line  of  one  or  two  words  only, 

i  For  additional   remarks  on  also  contains  many  illustrations 

the  selection  of  types  and  the  of  titles  set  in  different  faces  of 

composition  of  title-pages,  see  type  and  in  the  fashions  of  dif- 

A  Treatise  on  Title-pages,  which  ferent  periods. 


128     When  tables  can  be  properly  leaded 

following  or  preceding  a  line  the  entire  width  of 
the  measure,  destroys  symmetry  in  composition. 
A  long  dedication  can  be  made  more  readable  by 
setting  it  as  a  letter  in  italic  lower-case. 

TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 

The  table  of  contents,  usually  on  a  separate  leaf,  is 
often  set  in  small  capitals  one  or  two  sizes  smaller 
than  the  type  of  the  text,  with  capitals  for  the  first 
letter  of  important  words,  but  roman  lower-case  is 
sometimes  preferred.  Small  capitals  of  the  large 
type  of  a  text  are  not  a  good  choice,  for  they  make 
the  page  seem  needlessly  coarse.  The  number  of 
the  chapter,  the  name  of  the  chapter  heading,  and 
the  page  figures  referred  to,  appear  at  their  best 
when  they  can  be  put  in  one  line.  This  line  should 
begin  with  the  number  of  the  chapter  in  roman 
numerals  of  small  capitals.  The  initial  letters  of 
the  chapter  should  be  kept  in  a  vertical  line. 

A  table  of  contents  needs  wide  leading  to  make 
it  readable.  When  the  subjects  provided  fill  the 
page  too  compactly  and  leave  insufficient  blank 
at  its  head,  the  matter  should  be  double-  or  treble- 
leaded  to  occupy  two  or  more  pages.  This  leading 
should  not  be  strictly  uniform,  for  when  the  words 
of  a  chapter  name  make  two  or  more  lines  they 
should  be  kept  visibly  together,  separated  by  one 
lead  only,  even  if  three  leads  or  white  lines  are  put 
between  the  matter  provided  for  different  chapters. 


Tables  needing  orderly  arrangement     129 

When  other  parts  of  the  book  are  wide -leaded, 
and  it  is  desirable  that  the  contents  should  occupy 
two  or  more  pages,  the  numerals  that  define  chap- 
ters may  be  put  in  a  separate  line  in  the  centre  of 
the  measure,  and  there  should  be  still  broader 
blanks  between  the  names  or  legends  of  the  chap- 
ters. This  treatment  should  not  be  attempted  in 
any  book  with  solid  text,  for  some  uniformity  of 
compactness  or  of  openness  should  be  maintained 
throughout  the  fore  part  of  the  book.  When  the 
words  of  a  chapter  heading  are  many  and  make  a 
second  line,  the  two  lines  may  be  braced  and  the 
page  number  put  at  the  point  of  the  brace,  but  the 
brace  selected  for  this  purpose  should  not  be  blacker 
than  the  type  of  the  text.  The  leaders  provided  by 
the  type-founders  to  connect  letters  with  figures 
are  not  so  pleasing  as  periods  placed  one  em  apart. 

TABLE    OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 

This  table,  more  irregular  in  its  matter  than  the 
table  of  contents,  usually  contains  in  its  first  line 
the  legend  of  the  illustration,  and  near  its  ending 
the  name  of  the  designer,  engraver,  or  photogra- 
pher. Under  the  legend  line  are  often  put  one  or 
more  lines  of  added  explanation,  which  may  be  in 
small  type.  When  space  and  matter  will  permit, 
an  attempt  should  be  made  to  keep  the  names  of 
the  artists  in  vertical  line,  so  that  the  casual  reader 
will  note  the  distinction.  Not  a  little  ingenuity 


130  Half-title  and  bastard  title 

may  be  required  to  keep  the  matter  straight.  The 
lines  may  have  to  be  reset  repeatedly  before  the 
composition  is  presentable. 

PARTS    AND    HALF-TITLES 

Each  large  subdivision  of  book  or  part  or  canto 
takes  a  separate  leaf  in  the  sumptuous  volume,  and 
its  name  or  number  is  put  in  the  centre  or  a  little 
above  the  centre  of  an  otherwise  blank  page.  The 
back  of  this  page  is  always  blank.  The  type  that 
defines  the  part  need  not  be  large.  Roman  nume- 
rals are  used  to  specify  its  number,  but  to  give  it 
a  due  prominence  and  equality  with  the  wider  and 
bolder  capitals  in  that  line,  the  thin  types  for  nume- 
rals II  and  III  will  need  a  thin  space  between  them. 

For  the  cheap  edition  a  separate  leaf  for  each 
part  is  not  often  allowed.  The  number  and  name  of 
the  part  may  be  ordered  to  be  put  at  the  head  of 
its  following  chapter  page,  and  if  that  page  has  a 
long  synopsis,  a  hair-line  dash  may  be  needed  under 
the  line  that  specifies  the  part,  but  the  dash  should 
be  suppressed  when  the  relative  importance  of  the 
different  headings  can  be  made  clear  without  it. 

The  half-title,  which  is  a  repetition  of  the  name 
of  the  book,  was  once  put  over  the  first  chapter  of 
every  book,  but  it  is  rarely  used  now.1  When  a 

1  The  half -title  should  not  be  text ;  the  bastard  title,  usually  a 

confounded   with    the    bastard  single  line  in  capital  letters,  pre- 

title.    The  half-title  follows  the  cedes  the  full  title,  and  takes  a 

title  and  begins  the  first  page  of  separate  leaf  with  blank  verso. 


Space  needed  for  chapter  headings      131 

head-band,  an  engraved  initial,  and  a  long  synopsis 
have  to  be  inserted,  the  half-title  is  impracticable. 


CHAPTER    HEADINGS 

A  crowded  first  page  is  as  unsightly  as  a  crowded 
title.  If  it  contains  head-band,  half-title,  number 
of  chapter,  chapter  heading,  synopsis,  subheading, 
and  initial,  the  first  page  cannot  be  composed  in 
orderly  manner,  with  proper  subordination  of  types 
to  show  their  distinction. 

The  number  of  a  chapter  heading  is  usually  set 
in  capitals  of  the  text  type,  but  the  numbers  only 
may  be  larger.  As  the  numerals  I  II  III  are  thin 
and  relatively  insignificant  by  the  side  of  the  letters 
in  the  word  CHAPTER,  that  word  is  often  omitted, 
and  the  chapter  is  defined  by  numerals  only.  The 
head-band  that  surmounts  a  chapter  heading  may 
be  sunk  two  lines,  so  that  its  top  will  register  with 
the  first  line  of  text  on  the  following  page,  and  not 
with  the  running  title.  If  the  text  is  wide-leaded, 
about  half  a  page  of  blank  space  may  be  given  to 
the  chapter  heading ;  if  thin-leaded,  one  third ;  if 
solid  and  without  a  head-band,  one  fourth  or  one 
fifth  of  the  page.1  The  space  allowed  for  the  first 

i  The  amount  of  blank  often  two  and  preferably  four  lines  or 

has  to  be  governed  by  the  amount  more  of  text  below  the  large  in- 

of  matter  in  the  synopsis  that  itial.     The  synopsis  is  a  disfig- 

may  follow,  and  by  the  size  of  urement  when  it  overruns  on  the 

the  initial  letter,  if  an  initial  is  next  page  and  prevents  needed 

used.     There  should  be  at  least  lines  of  text  on  the  first  page. 


132  Types  preferred  for  synopsis 

chapter  heading  may  be  used  for  all  the  following 
chapter  headings,  and  should  be  distinctly  marked 
on  the  gauge  of  the  maker-up. 

The  type  for  the  words  that  give  name  to  the 
chapter  (which  should  be  the  same  in  all  the  fol- 
lowing chapter  headings)  may  be  in  capitals  of  the 
text  type,  or  larger,  if  its  letters  will  come  in  one  or 
two  lines.  If  its  words  are  too  many  for  one  line, 
do  not  select  black-letter  or  any  form  of  condensed 
type;  make  two  lines  of  the  matter,  but  shorten 
the  first  line  and  place  the  overrun  words  in  the 
centre  of  the  second  line.  The  words  in  this  first 
line  need  not  fill  the  measure.  To  make  the  first 
line  full,  and  to  put  in  the  second  line  one  word  or 
syllable  only,  will  be  a  great  blemish.  When  there 
is  no  synopsis,  and  the  name  of  the  chapter  will 
make  more  than  two  lines,  do  not  use  capitals: 
small  capitals  or  italic  lower-case  will  be  a  better 
choice,  and  the  lines  may  be  arranged  in  hanging 
indention  or  in  half-diamond  shape. 

SYNOPSIS 

This  abstract  of  the  contents  of  the  chapter  is 
often  set  in  small  capitals  of  the  text  type,  but 
in  this  position  the  small  capitals  of  a  large  body 
show  too  much  space  between  lines  and  seem  need- 
lessly large  and  coarse.  Small  capitals  on  a  body 
two  or  three  sizes  smaller  than  that  of  the  text  are 
a  more  approved  selection,  although  they  are  dense 


Types  for  preface  and  introduction     133 

and  too  often  indistinct.  A  small  size  of  plain 
roman  lower-case  is  more  acceptable.  It  must  be 
set  in  small  type  when  it  crowds  the  space  needed 
for  the  initial  letter  and  the  text  type.  Sentences 
in  a  synopsis  are  often  separated  by  an  em  dash, 
but  the  period  before  the  dash  is  not  needed  ;  a  thin 
space  before  and  after  is  better.  Two  or  three  peri- 
ods a  thick  space  apart  and  without  any  dash  make 
a  more  pleasing  mark  of  separation.  The  synopsis 
is  usually  set  in  hanging  indention,  which  should 
not  be  greater  than  that  of  the  paragraphs  of  the 
text.  Indentions  of  three  or  more  ems  make  the 
matter  lopsided. 

The  long  synopsis,  in  lower-case  italic,  with  its 
clauses  separated  by  semicolons,  is  sometimes  put  on 
a  separate  leaf  with  blank  verso  before  the  chapter. 

PREFACE    AND    INTRODUCTION 

The  size  of  type  for  preface  and  introduction  is 
frequently  determined  by  the  author.  When  the 
printer  has  the  right  of  choice,  and  space  will 
allow,  the  preface  may  be  in  large  type,  or  in  the 
type  of  the  text  made  distinctive  by  a  change  in 
its  leading.  A  book  on  a  bibliographical  subject 
may  have  its  preface  in  italic  lower-case,  as  was 
once  customary.  As  the  preface  often  contains 
more  or  less  of  personal  explanation,  it  needs  some 
distinction  of  type,  which  can  be  varied  to  suit  the 
occasion.  When  these  personal  explanations  are 


134     First  part  of  look  needs  most  care 

of  minor  importance,  and  the  matter  for  the  text 
has  exceeded  its  intended  limit,  the  preface  may  be 
in  small  type.  A  book  of  many  editions  may  have 
as  many  distinct  prefaces,  and  it  is  the  general 
practice  to  give  to  each  one  its  beginning  on  an 
odd  page,  even  if  this  treatment  makes  many  blank 
pages.  A  short  preface  is  pleasing  when  in  large 
type,  but  large  type  is  seldom  ordered  when  the 
matter  will  make  many  pages. 

The  long  introduction  is  often  set  in  smaller  type 
and  with  thinner  leads  than  those  for  the  text,  but 
its  type  should  be  of  the  same  face  and  have  similar 
treatment.  A  solid  introduction  before  a  leaded 
text  is  unpleasing.  When  head -bands  have  been 
selected  for  the  regular  chapters,  a  head-band  may 
be  used  for  the  first  page  of  the  preface  or  intro- 
duction, but  it  may  be  narrower  than  the  head- 
bands of  regular  chapters. 

As  the  preface  and  introduction  are  usually  set 
after  the  text  has  been  printed,  it  is  necessary  to 
give  them  separate  paging  with  numerals  of  roman 
lower-case.  The  roman  numerals  need  not  be 
used  for  any  reprint  on  which  presswork  begins 
with  the  preface. 

Careful  composition  is  of  importance  in  the  first 
part  of  the  book,  for  a  neglect  in  workmanship  is 
there  most  noticeable.  The  sumptuous  book  must 
have  its  chapter  headings  begin  on  odd  pages,  but 
in  a  book  without  pretence  to  superiority  each  new 
chapter  may  begin  on  the  verso,  or  left-hand  page. 


Treatment  of  subheadings  135 

The  publisher  may  not  consent  to  what  he  calls  a 
needless  waste  of  white  paper.  In  some  books  the 
chapters  are  as  brief  as  they  are  in  the  Bible,  under 
which  condition  the  new  chapter  must  closely  fol- 
low the  previous  chapter.  To  prevent  unsightly 
gaps  of  white  space,  it  is  often  necessary  to  overrun 
many  pages  previously  made  up.  Paragraphs  must 
be  made  longer  or  shorter  by  a  wider  or  narrower 
spacing  of  lines,  and  an  unequal  amount  of  blank 
must  be  put  between  the  chapters.  Hymn-books 
and  collections  of  desultory  poems  in  different 
measures  often  require  similar  treatment.  No  fixed 
rule  can  be  laid  down  for  the  amount  of  blank  be- 
tween chapters,  but  it  must  be  large  in  the  sump- 
tuous and  small  in  the  compact  book.1 

SUBHEADINGS 

Subheadings,  of  the  same  class,  intended  to  relieve 
the  monotony  of  plain  type,  should  be  in  the  same 
face  and  size  of  type  throughout  the  book.  For 
a  subheading  of  one  or  two  lines  only,  the  small 
capitals  of  the  text  are  commonly  used.  For  sub- 
headings of  three  lines  or  more,  italic  lower-case  of 

1  The  rule  that  requires  every  tirely  blank.  The  proper  treat- 
chapter  heading  to  begin  on  the  ment  of  this  difficulty  will  be 
odd  page  often  meets  with  un-  considered  in  a  future  chapter 
expected  difficulties.  The  end  on  making  up.  The  intervention 
of  a  previous  chapter  may  over-  of  the  author  or  publisher  may 
run  three  lines  on  an  odd  page,  be  needed  to  add  or  cancel  mat- 
leaving  the  lower  part  of  that  ter  enough  to  make  a  sightly 
page  and  the  page  following  en-  page. 


136      Paragraphs  numbered  or  lettered 

the  text  in  hanging  indention  of  one  em  only  will 
be  a  better  choice.  The  indistinctness  of  compact 
small  capitals  can  be  made  less  offensive  by  hair- 
spacing  the  letters,  but  this  treatment  is  not  recom- 
mended for  subheadings  of  more  than  one  line.  If 
the  italic  of  the  text  is  not  large  enough,  use  the 
next  larger  size.  The  subheading  in  italic  is  also 
used  in  school-books  or  any  didactic  work  contain- 
ing rules  or  propositions  that  serve  as  texts  for  fol- 
lowing remarks.  In  school-books  these  subhead- 
ings often  appear  in  light-faced  antique  or  title 
type,  but  this  overbold  display  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended in  the  standard  book.  The  distinction  de- 
sired for  a  subheading  is  secured  more  effectively  by 
putting  about  it  a  generous  relief  of  white  space. 
In  some  books  long  subheadings  are  set  in  lower- 
case type  two  or  three  sizes  smaller  than  that  of  the 
text.  Small  type  and  abundant  white  space  about 
the  subheading  are  enough  to  arrest  the  attention 
of  the  reader. 

Paragraphs  below  the  rule  or  proposition  that 
serves  as  a  text  are  often  numbered  or  lettered,  but 
the  number  or  letter  need  not  be  inclosed  in  paren- 
theses that  lessen  its  prominence.  Old-style  figures 
are  objectionable,  for  they  are  weak  and  of  irregu- 
lar form.  The  number  or  letter  need  not  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  period.  The  en  quadrat  is  enough  to 
show  separation,  as  in  the  versification  of  the  Bible. 

Side-headings  may  be  set  in  small  capitals  or 
italic,  but  they  do  not  need  an  em  dash  to  follow  the 


Extracts  need  variable  treatment      137 

closing  period.  For  dictionaries,  gazetteers,  or 
work  of  like  character,  that  contains  frequent  para- 
graphs, the  side-heading  of  title  or  antique  type  is 
preferred.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  type  for 
this  purpose  should  be  very  bold,  nor  should  it  have 
marked  eccentricity  of  shape  to  annoy  the  critical 
reader,  but  it  will  present  a  much  neater  appear- 
ance when  it  is  on  line  with  the  type  of  the  text. 

Copy  is  sometimes  formally  divided  into  para- 
graphs and  sections,  and  the  signs  for  these  divi- 
sions may  be  ordered  instead  of  spelled-out  words. 
The  sign  should  be  separated  from  its  following 
figure  by  a  three-to-em  space.  The  abbreviation  of 
SEC.  for  Section  is  not  wise.  If  space  has  to  be 
saved,  the  sign  §  is  better. 

EXTRACTS 

Extracts  and  notes  should  be  leaded  when  the  text 
is  leaded,  but  always  with  a  thinner  lead  for  each 
decreasing  size.  The  text  that  has  six-to-pica  leads 
should  have  its  extracts  in  type  one  size  smaller 
with  an  eight-to-pica  lead,  and  the  notes  at  the 
foot  of  the  page  should  have  a  ten-to-pica  lead. 

Short  extracts  and  quotations  may  be  run  in  the 
text  and  yet  be  kept  distinct  by  using  the  ordinary 
marks  of  quotation.  When  there  are  four  or  more 
lines,  the  quoted  matter  can  be  more  distinctly 
defined  by  putting  the  reversed  commas  at  the 
beginning  of  each  line,  and  apostrophes  at  the  end 


138       Quoting  and  indenting  of  extracts 

of  the  last  line,  but  this  old  fashion  is  used  now 
only  when  extreme  precision  is  compulsory.  The 
approved  practice  is  to  set  extracts  of  four  or 
more  lines  in  type  of  the  same  face  but  one  size 
smaller  than  that  of  the  text.  Types  two  or  three 
sizes  smaller  are  objectionably  petty. 

When  the  extract  is  set  in  a  separate  paragraph 
and  in  smaller  type,  it  does  not  need  the  marks  of 
quotation ;  the  change  in  size  is  a  sufficient  indica- 
tion of  a  change  in  authorship.  A  new  method  of 
indicating  extracts  indents  them  one  em  on  each 
side  of  every  line.  Long  extracts  that  make  two 
or  more  pages  are  frequently  an  annoyance  to  the 
reader.  When  it  can  be  done,  the  verbose  extract 
should  be  remanded  to  the  appendix. 

Extracts  in  prose  or  long  quotations  of  poetry  in 
smaller  type  are  kept  separate  from  the  text  by 
leads  placed  above  and  below.  If  the  text  is  solid, 
two  leads  may  be  enough  to  mark  this  separation, 
Italic  is  occasionally  selected  for  poetry,  but  not  to 
advantage.  To  prevent  the  overrunning  of  very 
long  lines  of  poetry,  always  a  blemish,  a  smaller  size 
of  type  may  be  selected. 

If  the  extract  has  been  ordered  in  peculiar  type 
or  in  the  style  of  a  document,  it  may  be  inclosed  in 
a  rule  of  hair-line  face,  which  will  show  that  it  is 
an  illustration  as  well  as  an  extract.  Another  way, 
more  generally  pleasing  and  not  so  troublesome,  is 
to  begin  the  document  with  a  plain  two-line  letter, 
which  clearly  shows  that  it  is  not  a  part  of  the  text. 


Variable  treatment  of  notes          139 


NOTES 

Foot-notes  usually  appear  in  a  type  two  or  three 
sizes  smaller  than  the  type  of  the  text.  Four  sizes 
smaller,  but  not  less  than  6-point,  may  be  a  better 
choice  when  notes  are  prolix  as  well  as  profuse. 
When  the  note  is  merely  the  specification  in  abbre- 
viated words  of  an  authority,  it  may  be  set  in  broad 
measure  j  when  it  is  explanatory  and  makes  many 
lines,  half -measure  is  better.  The  two  columns  of 
this  half -measure  will  be  properly  separated  with 
an  em  quadrat  of  the  type  of  the  note.  A  brass  rule 
to  separate  the  two  columns  of  a  half -measure  note, 
or  a  broad -measure  note  from  the  text  above,  is 
seldom  used  now. 

Side-notes  in  type  three  sizes  smaller  than  that 
of  the  text  are  usually  made  up  to  a  measure  of 
eight  nonpareils,  but  they  may  be  wider  for  notes 
that  have  many  words.  Sometimes  specifications 
of  authority  are  set  in  italic  lower-case  type,  but 
italic  is  not  a  wise  choice,  for  its  kerned  letters  are 
easily  damaged  in  this  exposed  position,  and  the 
upright  arabic  figures  too  often  used  with  it  do  not 
accord  with  inclined  letters. 

Cut-in  notes  are  in  measures  of  variable  widths, 
and  they  usually  appear  in  small  sizes  of  plain 
roman  lower-case  type.  Light-faced  antiques  and 
condensed  letters  are  common  in  the  texts  of  school- 
books,  but  are  not  a  betterment  to  a  library  book. 


140    Photo-engraved  plates  need  scrutiny 

A  modern  fashion  for  cut-in  notes  is  to  begin  them 
on  the  first  line  of  the  paragraph,  but  this  treat- 
ment gives  to  that  paragraph  a  ragged  and  un- 
sightly outline.  The  page  will  be  more  comely  if 
the  first  line  of  the  cut-in  note  is  opposite  the  third 
line  of  the  paragraph. 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Engravings  on  wood  have  practically  disappeared. 
Plates  of  zinc  or  copper  etched  by  photo-engraving 
process  now  contain  the  illustrations  provided  for 
printing  with  type.  With  the  providing  of  these 
illustrations,  mostly  furnished  by  the  publisher, 
the  printer  has  little  to  do,  but  to  some  extent  he 
is  made  responsible  for  their  proper  appearance  in 
print,  and  it  becomes  him  to  examine  the  plates 
critically,  for  the  photo-engraver's  proof  on  coated 
paper  may  be  deceptive.1  The  plate  to  be  examined 
should  be  proved  again  on  paper  that  must  be  used 
in  the  proposed  book,  and  this  proof  will  show 
whether  the  plate  is  or  is  riot  proper  for  the  paper. 
Common  faults  in  process  plates  are  lines  broken 
or  thickened  at  their  extremities,  shallow  etching, 
and  imperfect  blocking.  These  process  plates  are 

l  Photo-engravings  by  the  so-  presswork.    Much  as  it  may  be 

called  half-tone  process  should  disliked  by  the  critical,  a  super- 

never  be  selected  for  type-work  calendered  or  a  coated  paper  is 

that  must  be  printed  on  paper  needed  for  the  full  development 

with  a  dull  or  rough  surface  or  of  the  delicate  work  of  a  half- 

that  has  to  be  dampened  before  tone  plate. 


Placing  of  cuts  by  maker-up          141 

often  blocked  on  wood,  but  the  wood  may  be  soft, 
warped,  too  high,  too  low,  out  of  square,  or  an  in- 
secure support  for  its  plate.  These  defects  must 
be  amended  before  fair  presswork  can  be  done,  and 
the  amendments  should  be  made  before  the  plates 
are  sent  to  the  press  or  to  the  electrotype  foundry. 
Hard  type-metal  is  better  than  wood  for  a  base. 
The  cut  of  irregular  shape  should  be  nicked  for  the 
admission  of  type  before  it  is  given  to  the  maker-up. 
Illustrations  (or  cuts,  as  they  are  oftener  called 
in  the  printing-house)  that  come  within  the  measure 
can  be  placed  by  the  compositor  in  their  proper 
order  on  the  galley  that  receives  his  composed  type, 
but  this  cannot  be  done  when  the  cuts  are  small  or 
of  irregular  shape,  and  the  types  have  to  be  rear- 
ranged to  conform  to  their  irregularities  and  kept 
within  the  limits  of  the  page.  No  one  can  foresee 
where  the  cuts  will  have  to  be  placed.  Lines  of 
type  can  be  divided  almost  anywhere  at  the  end 
of  the  page,  but  the  cut  must  be  intact.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  set  the  type  of  every  book  to  be  illus- 
trated to  the  full  width  of  the  regular  measure, 
and  to  have  the  maker-up  put  the  cut  in  its  proper 
place  after  he  has  divided  the  type  matter  in  pages. 
To  do  this  neatly,  the  type  previously  set  by  the 
compositor  must  be  overrun  and  led  down  in  a  nar- 
row measure  by  the  side  of  a  small  or  diagonal  cut, 
and  this  overrunning  may  have  to  be  done  repeat- 
edly before  the  type  and  cuts  are  fitted  to  each 
other  and  to  the  page. 


142     To  prevent  changes  in  running  titles 


RUNNING    TITLES    AND    PAGING 

Small  capitals  of  the  text  type,  often  thin-spaced, 
with  arabic  figures  in  the  same  line,  have  been  for 
many  years  an  approved  form  for  the  running  title, 
but  they  are  not  in  high  favor  now,  largely  on  ac- 
count of  their  pettiness.  When  the  words  for  the 
running  title  are  few  and  repeat  the  name  of  the 
book  or  the  heading  of  the  chapter,  roman  capitals 
of  full  size  on  a  body  one  or  two  sizes  smaller  than 
that  of  the  text  are  often  selected.  If  it  has  many 
words  and  defines  the  contents  of  its  page,  italic 
lower-case  is  to  be  preferred.  A  line  in  italic  capi- 
tals only  is  not  so  well  liked.  Small  capitals  of  the 
text  can  be  used  when  the  type  of  that  text  is  large, 
but  if  the  text  is  small  and  leaded,  its  small  capitals 
will  need  hair-spacing,  and  its  paging  figures  will 
be  indistinct.  Old  English  black-letter  is  some- 
times used  for  the  running  title,  but  this  style  is  at 
its  best  in  a  medieval  or  bibliographical  book.  A 
large  size  of  roman  lower-case  letter  is  another  ap- 
proved style.  The  running  title  in  mixed  capitals 
and  small  capitals  is  not  a  favorite. 

To  prevent  capricious  changes  in  the  capitals  of 
a  running  title  in  lower-case,  capitals  should  be 
confined  to  the  initial  letter  and  to  proper  names.1 

iThe  earliest  printed  books  repeat  the  number  of  the  proper 
had  no  running  title  or  paging  chapter  at  the  head  of  each  page, 
figures.  The  first  attempt  to  sup-  and  this  treatment  was  then  sup- 
ply this  need  of  the  reader  was  to  posed  to  meet  all  requirements. 


Indention  of  running  titles  143 

The  running  title  is  in  an  exposed  position  where 
it  first  shows  the  wear  of  the  press.  To  withstand 
this  wear,  school-books,  hymn-books,  and  all  works 
frequently  reprinted  from  plates  often  have  run- 
ning titles  in  capitals  of  light-faced  antique. 

A  new  fashion  in  running  titles  is  the  very  wide 
spacing  of  their  letters.  This  must  be  done  when 
it  is  so  ordered,  but  a  spacing  of  single  types  with 
em  or  two-em  quadrats  is  no  grace  to  leaded  and 
a  real  blemish  over  a  text  of  solid  composition. 

The  running  title  is  usually  separated  from  the 
text  below  by  one  line  of  the  quadrats  of  the  text 
type,  but  if  that  text  type  is  of  12-point  the  blank 
so  made  will  seem  needlessly  wide.  A  new  fashion 
separates  the  running  title  from  its  text  with  two 
leads  only,  which  may  be  satisfactory  for  solid,  but 
is  not  pleasing  for  leaded  matter.1 

Lower-case  type  of  small  size  has  been  used  for 
running  titles,  but  the  general  preference  is  for  a 
type  larger  than  that  of  the  text. 

Sometimes  the  running  title  is  not  centred,  but 
is  set  flush  up  to  the  inner  margin  of  facing  pages, 
at  the  end  of  the  left  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 

l  The  blank  space  under  the  rule  has  been  used.     The  value 

running  title  seems  to  invite  a  of  these  additions  to  the  page  is 

meddling  treatment.     The  hair-  not  apparent,  for  a  succession  of 

line  cross-rule,  sometimes  of  half  unmeaning  rules  soon  wearies 

the  width,  but  oftener  of  the  full  the   reader.     For  this  purpose 

width  of  the  measure,  is  the  fa-  the  hair-lines,  as  usually  made 

vorite,  but  parallel  rules  of  full  upon  single,  parallel,  and  double 

width  are  almost  as  common,  rules,  are  annoyances  to  the  elec- 

For  the  page  intended  to  be  re-  trotyper  and  pressman,  and  of 

markably  spruce,  a  thick  double  small  benefit  to  the  reader. 


144    Page  figures  reckoned  as  of  margin 

right  page.  The  chapter  and  the  section  of  the  book 
may  be  specified  in  the  running  title, — the  chapter 
name  on  the  left  and  the  section  on  the  right  page, 
— each  fenced  off  from  the  words  of  the  running 
title  with  brackets.  This  revival  of  an  old  fashion 
is  now  a  common  practice,  but  it  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  a  grace  to  any  modern  page. 

The  running  title  that  consists  of  the  very  long 
name  of  the  book  is  sometimes  divided  so  that  one 
half  only  of  this  name  will  appear  on  one  page  and 
the  other  half  on  the  facing  page.  Nor  is  this  a 
commendable  fashion,  for  a  line  of  many  words 
can  seldom  be  evenly  divided ;  if  it  is  not  so  divided, 
one  heading  will  be  longer  than  the  other. 

The  continuous  repetition  of  the  name  of  the 
book  in  its  running  title,  when  that  name  is  well 
known  to  the  reader,  is  a  wearisome  and  needless 
formality.  This  title  is  most  useful  when  it  ex- 
plains or  to  some  extent  defines  the  matter  on  the 
page,  and  this  explanation  should  refer  not  to  the 
first  but  to  the  last  paragraph  on  that  page. 

In  pamphlets  or  books  that  have  no  running 
title,  the  paging  figure  is  put  in  the  centre  of  the 
head-line,  but  it  need  not  be  inclosed  in  parenthe- 
ses or  brackets,  nor  have  attached  colons,  dashes,  or 
any  other  attempt  at  finish.  If  the  first  line  of  type 
contains  nothing  but  the  paging  figure,  this  first 
line  and  the  blank  below  it  must  be  reckoned  in 
the  imposition  of  the  form  on  the  stone  as  a  part 
of  the  head  margin  of  the  page.  If  these  practical 


Page  figures  needed  ~by  the  folder      145 

blanks  are  reckoned  as  a  part  of  the  page  of  type, 
the  margin  at  the  head  will  seem  much  too  large  in 
print,  and  the  page  so  treated  will  have  an  un- 
workmanlike appearance. 

Old-style  figures  are  disliked  for  paging.  The 
irregularity  of  petty  types  like  i  o  i  on  one  page  and 
396  on  another  is  offensive  to  every  reader  who 
respects  symmetry  and  uniformity.  Some  type- 
founders have  remodelled  these  figures  and  made 
them  uniform  in  height  and  line.1  It  is  the  rule 
now  that  figures  for  paging  should  not  be  smaller 
or  less  distinct  than  the  figures  used  in  the  text. 
They  should  be  of  readable  size,  even  if  it  is  neces- 
sary to  justify  in  the  line  figures  of  a  larger  body. 

Paging  figures  at  the  head  of  a  full-page  cut  are 
forbidden  by  artists  and  editors  as  derogatory  to 
its  intended  effect.  It  is,  however,  necessary  that 
this  page  have  its  proper  paging  figure  to  prevent 

i  One  of  the  novelties  of  re-  tions  to  distinguish  them  from 

formed  typography  is  the  omis-  the  figures  of  the  regular  signa- 

sion  of  all  paging  figures,  both  ture.     The  proper  page  figures 

at  the  head  and  at  the  foot  of  the  should  be  put  at  the  foot  of  every 

page.    This  omission  gives  need-  page  that  has  a  lowered  chapter 

less  trouble  to  the  folder  as  well  heading  or  a  cut  at  the  head  of  the 

as  to  the  reader.    Paging  figures  page.     It  is  a  mistake  to  assume 

are  guide-posts  that  prevent  the  that  the  early  makers  of  books 

folder  and  binder  from  making  did  not  number  or   letter  the 

crooked   folding   and  irregular  leaves  of  their  books  to  show 

margins.     Paging  at  the  foot  of  their  regular  sequence.  William 

the  page  is  a  common,  and  in  Blades,  a  most  diligent  searcher, 

many  instances  an  unavoidable,  has  shown  that  the  leaves  were 

practice.     In  this  position  the  numbered  or  lettered  at  the  foot 

figures  may  be  of  small  size,  but  and  that  their  marks  were  trim- 

they  should  be  of  a  face  that  will  med  off  after  all  the  leaves  had 

enable  the  gatherer  of  the  sec-  been  gathered  and  sewed. 
10 


146    Paging  of  preface  and  advertisements 

a  possible  mistake  by  stoneman,  proof-reader,  or 
pressman.  The  maker-up  puts  it  in  the  foot -line, 
and  there  it  remains  until  ready  for  press,  when 
it  is  withdrawn  by  the  stoneman.  If  the  page  is 
to  be  electrotyped,  the  paging  figure  remains,  but 
the  proof-reader  marks  it  to  be  cut  off  the  plate  by 
the  electrotype  finisher.  He  scratches  or  engraves 
the  proper  page  figure  on  the  plate  so  that  it  will 
not  appear  in  print,  yet  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  the 
pressman.  This  precaution  will  prevent  delay  and 
annoying  blunders  in  laying  plates. 

As  a  rule,  paging  with  arabic  figures  begins 
with  the  text  of  the  book.  The  matter  before  the 
text  (as  the  title,  preface,  introduction,  etc.,  which 
are  printed  last  of  all)  is  paged  with  roman  lower- 
case numerals.  This  paging  is  supposed  to  begin 
with  the  bastard  title  or  the  first  printed  page  of 
the  book ;  but  neither  on  that  nor  on  any  other  very 
open  page  are  these  roman  numerals  printed,  yet 
they  are  always  reckoned  in  the  table  of  contents 
as  if  they  had  been  paged. 

Appendix,  index,  and  all  additions  to  the  text 
take  arabic  figures  for  paging,  but  publishers'  ad- 
vertisements at  the  end  of  the  book  should  receive 
their  special  paging  in  a  figure  of  different  face. 
Maps,  portraits,  and  illustrations  made  on  separate 
leaves  by  copperplate  or  lithographic  process  for 
insertion  in  the  book  never  receive  printed  paging, 
although  they  may  be  reckoned  as  pages  in  the  table 
of  contents  or  the  index. 


New  methods  for  setting  index        147 


APPENDIX    AND    INDEX 

The  appendix  of  letters,  extracts,  documents,  or 
tables  that  are  too  long  for  the  text  is  usually  in 
type  one  or  two  sizes  smaller  than  that  of  the  text. 
It  may  be  set  close  and  solid  when  compactness  is 
desired,  but  its  subheadings  should  not  be  too  com- 
pact. They  should  have  around  them  enough  of 
white  space  to  invite  the  reader's  attention. 

The  index  breaks  the  rule  of  strict  uniformity  of 
treatment,  for  it  is  set  solid  in  small  type,  even  when 
every  other  part  is  leaded.  Two  columns  of  6-point 
type  are  common  for  the  duodecimo,  and  three  or 
more  of  8-point  for  a  large  octavo  or  quarto.  As 
its  merit  is  largely  in  compactness,  some  abbrevia- 
tions that  are  improper  in  the  text  are  permissible 
in  the  index,  but  the  full  names  of  persons  should 
be  spelled  out,  wherever  it  is  possible,  to  prevent 
a  misleading  direction. 

The  hanging  indention  of  one  en  is  enough  for 
an  index  in  two  or  three  columns.  There  need  be 
no  rule  between  the  columns.  In  the  copious  index, 
the  first  word  of  every  reference,  or  the  two  or  three 
words  that  follow,  may  be  set  in  the  slightly  bolder 
type  of  a  light-faced  antique,  but  the  body  of  the 
reference  should  be  in  plain  roman  lower-case.  The 
old  method  of  making  a  separate  line  for  each  sub- 
division of  that  reference,  and  of  connecting  it  by 
leaders  to  figures  at  the  end  of  the  line,  is  obsolete. 


148          Turned-over  words  in  poetry 

References  in  an  index  to  different  volumes  are 
often  put  in  roman  numerals  of  capitals,  but  they 
are  large,  wasteful  of  space,  and  not  the  clearest 
guides  to  the  searcher.  For  this  purpose  arabic 
figures  of  title  type  or  light-faced  antique  should  be 
preferred.  The  period  at  the  end  of  each  subdi- 
vision of  the  general  reference  is  not  needed ;  the 
semicolon  is  a  better  mark  of  separation.  Commas 
before  page  figures  should  not  be  omitted.  Cross- 
references  and  note-references  should  be  in  italic. 

POETRY 

A  three-to-em  space  is  wide  enough  for  the  proper 
separation  of  words  of  poetry  in  solid  or  single- 
leaded  composition.  The  en  quadrat  may  be  used 
for  double-  or  treble-leaded  matter,  but  it  is  not  an 
improvement,  and  spaces  of  greater  width  are  a 
positive  blemish.  To  avoid  the  turning  over  of  a 
long  line,  very  thin  spaces  have  to  be  used  occa- 
sionally, even  when  they  mar  the  general  uni- 
formity of  spacing  in  the  page,  for  the  turned-over 
line  of  one  syllable,  often  unavoidable,  is  a  greater 
misfortune  than  too  thin  spacing.  When  it  is 
practicable,  the  word  or  syllable  turned  over  may 
be  put  at  the  end  of  the  preceding  line  or  follow- 
ing line  after  a  bracket.  This  may  be  done  when 
the  matter  has  to  be  kept  on  one  page  or  in  a  speci- 
fied number  of  pages,  but  it  is  not  to  be  advised 
for  open  composition  in  a  generously  planned  book. 


Page  figures  not  to  be  indented        149 

The  word  turned  in  a  separate  line  should  be  so 
deeply  indented  that  it  cannot  be  mistaken  by  the 
negligent  reader  for  a  new  line.  A  modern  practice 
permits  this  turned-over  line  to  be  set  flush  with 
its  preceding  line,  but  it  does  not  meet  with  general 
approval.  Lines  from  which  words  are  turned  over 
should  never  be  spaced  out  to  full  measure. 

The  variable  indention  of  different  lines  is  usually 
determined  by  the  author.  When  his  intent  is  not 
clearly  expressed,  give  a  similar  indention  to  the 
lines  that  rime.  Sonnets  are  sometimes  indented 
artificially  in  the  copy  without  regard  to  their  rime. 
Odes  are  another  form  of  verse  not  to  be  controlled 
by  arbitrary  rules,  and  they  must  be  set  with  the 
irregular  indention  directed  by  the  author. 

Indention  should  be  so  graduated  that  there  will 
seem  to  be  an  equal  amount  of  blank  on  each  side 
of  the  page.  In  making  up  pages  of  short  poems 
in  different  metres,  the  indention  may  have  to  be 
changed  for  each  poem,  so  that  the  entire  body  of 
verse  on  that  page,  and  not  one  or  two  stanzas  only, 
shall  be  fairly  centred.  The  different  measures  on 
different  pages  of  the  same  book  of  poems  cannot 
be  indented  by  any  inflexible  rule. 

The  running  title  is  the  one  line  that  can  never 
be  changed  with  safety.  Never  move  it  or  the 
paging  figure  at  the  end  of  the  line  either  to  the 
right  or  the  left  to  make  the  body  of  an  irregularly 
indented  mass  of  poetry  seem  in  the  centre  of  the 
page.  The  paging  figures  are  often  the  only  safe 


150        Capital  letters  to  be  kept  in  line 

guide  the  pressman  has  in  making  register  when 
he  prints  the  sheet  on  the  reverse  side.  If  paging 
figures  are  put  out  of  place  it  is  probable  that  the 
pages  will  be  badly  registered,  and  that  the  incau- 
tious folder  of  the  printed  sheet  will  so  fold  it  as 
to  make  uneven  margins. 

Single  quotations  are  a  new  fashion  for  poetry, 
but  they  are  feeble ;  they  make  unsightly  gaps  of 
white,  and  should  be  used  only  in  strict  reprints  or 
when  especially  ordered.  It  is  the  more  acceptable 
practice  in  poetry,  as  in  prose,  to  make  use  of  the 
single  quotation-mark  for  the  quote  within  a  quote. 

"  Curse  on  him  !  "  quoth  false  Sextus ; 
"  Will  not  the  villain  drown  ? 
But  for  this  stay,  ere  close  of  day 

We  should  have  sacked  the  town." 
"  Heaven  help  him,"  quoth  Lars  Porsena, 
"  And  bring  him  safe  to  shore ; 
For  such  a  gallant  feat  of  arms 
Was  never  seen  before." 

In  all  stanzas  put  the  quotation-marks  in  the  space 
made  by  indention,  so  that  the  first  letters  of  each 
verse  shall  line  vertically  as  they  would  line  if  the 
quotes  were  not  used.  Do  not  allow  the  quotation- 
marks  to  make  irregular  the  vertical  lining  of  capi- 
tals. The  quote -marks  are  not  integral  parts  of 
the  sentence,  and  when  they  are  treated  as  if  they 
were,  the  intent  of  riming  indention  is  obscured. 
The  neat  making  up  of  pages  of  poetry  is  always 


Initial  letters  should  fit  space         151 

difficult  when  the  stanzas  are  unequal.  Division 
of  a  stanza  between  its  rimed  lines,  or  after  its 
first  line,  or  before  the  last  line,  are  faults  to  be 
avoided  by  overrunning  and  by  increasing  or  de- 
creasing the  blanks  in  previous  pages.  These  are 
troublesome  expedients,  but  they  cannot  be  evaded. 
Fixed  rules  for  preventing  these  irregularities  are 
entirely  impracticable.  The  compositor  should 
study  the  make-up  of  poems  in  good  editions  of 
standard  authors.  An  examination  of  the  author- 
ized edition  of  a  hymn-book  will  give  useful  sug- 
gestions. 

INITIAL    LETTERS 

Large  initial  letters  at  the  beginning  of  chapters 
or  important  divisions  of  a  book  are  old  and  useful 
devices  for  adding  to  the  attractiveness  of  print. 
They  should  be  used  oftener.  For  the  ordinary 
book  the  plain  two-line  initial  of  standard  width 
is  in  most  favor.  Its  form  should  be  that  of  the 
type  of  the  text,  but  perfect  harmony  is  not  always 
attainable,  and  the  .compositor  often  has  to  be  con- 
tent with  one  that  is  not  an  exact  mate.  An  initial 
letter  that  spans  two  lines  of  solid  composition  is 
to  be  had  of  type-founders,  but  it  may  be  difficult 
to  find  one  that  will  close  the  greater  vacancy  made 
by  leaded  lines.  Yet  it  is  important  that  it  should 
fairly  fill  this  vacancy.  To  be  a  real  improvement 
to  the  page,  the  top  of  a  two -line  initial  should  line 
with  the  top  of  the  types  in  its  following  first  line 


152        Capital  letters  follow  an  initial 

of  text,  and  the  foot  of  that  initial  should  also 
exactly  line  with  the  foot  of  the  second  line  of 
text.  An  initial  that  does  not  neatly  fill  the  gap 
made  by  lines  of  type  is  not  a  merit  but  a  blemish. 


T^HIS  INITIAL  is  on  T^HEN  NOT  ON  LINE  an 
line  at  top  and  foot,          unsightly  gap  is  left 

and  fairly  fills  the  vacant  at  the  top  and  above  the 

space.  third  line. 

This  gap  over  the  third  line  of  text  is  often  caused 
by  unwisely  selecting  the  broad-shouldered  capital 
of  a  very  large  type.  This  fault  can  be  prevented 
by  cutting  off  this  shoulder  when  it  has  to  be 
used  as  a  two-line  initial. 

When  the  text  type  is  small,  a  plain  initial  that 
spans  three  lines  of  text  may  be  selected  to  advan- 
tage, but  this  selection  is  made  troublesome  by  the 
steadily  increasing  width  of  large  types,  and  espe- 
cially of  types  like  A,  L,  Y,  etc.,  with  strokes  that  do 
not  fill  the  body,  and  that  do  make  ungainly  patches 
of  white.  To  lessen  this  blemish  in  type  a  moder- 
ately condensed  letter  may  be  selected,  but  an  extra- 
condensed  initial  is  never  a  betterment. 

The  types  that  immediately  follow  a  large  initial 
may  be  small  capitals  or  full  capitals.  Small  capi- 
tals should  be  preferred  when  they  make  perfect 
lining.  Full  capitals  of  a  large  text-type  after  a 
large  initial  are  not  always  pleasing,  for  they  sug- 
gest newspaper  advertisement  display,  and  in  a 
narrow  measure  may  compel  hair-spacing. 


High  initials      Medieval  initials      153 

i 

If  the  first  word  or  first  line  following  an  initial 
is  ordered  in  italic,  the  rule  of  exact  mating  may 
require  the  special  engraving  of  an  italic  initial.  A 
roman  initial  before  italic  letters  is  not  pleasing. 

L  HE  high  initial,  that  lines  at  the  foot  and  pro- 
jects upward  as  here  represented,  was  frequently 
used  in  poetry  and  open  composition  by  printers 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  It  is  not  suitable  for 
compact  composition,  but  it  can  be  selected  with 
advantage  for  some  forms  of  open  catalogue  matter, 
or  for  paragraphs  divided  by  lines  of  quadrats. 

EDIEVAL  initial  letters  of  uncial 
form,  that  have  curved  strokes  and 
claw-like  terminations,  were  com- 
mon in  early  books  with  texts  in 
roman  character.  Black-letter  ini- 
tials were  not  always  used  with  black-letter  texts, 
for  the  curved  lines  of  uncial  capitals  seemed  better 
adapted  for  the  decorative  work  about  the  initial. 
They  are  preferred  now  in  the  reprints  of  old  books, 
and  are  frequently  used  in  England  and  Germany, 
in  their  smaller  sizes,  as  occasional  capitals  for  the 
text  of  devotional  and  ecclesiastical  books. 


For  ordinary  books  the  engraved  initial  should  be 
on  a  square  or  right-angled  body.     When  it  has 


154  Eagged  and  pierced  initials 

straggling  lines  of  decoration  that  project  in  the 
margin  or  toward  the  chapter  head,  this  irregu- 
larity is  never  rated  as  a  fault,  but 
it  is  distinctly  unpleasing  when 
these  lines  project  at 
the  right  or  at  the  foot, 
and  give  ragged  end- 
ings to  lines  of  type. 
The  beauty  of  the  in- 
itial is  in  its  fittingness,  but 
it  does  not  fit  when  it  dis- 
torts the  lines  out  of  their 
proper  places,  as  is  shown 
by  the  side  of  this  initial  E. 

The  last  novelty  in  designed 
initials  is  an  upright  parallelo- 
gram, the  upper  part  contain- 
ing the  letter,  and  the  lower  part  the  decoration. 
When  the  initial  is  so  drawn,  the  lines  of  the  types 
of  the  text  can  be  kept  trim  and  square,  and  the 
initial  will  seem  to  be  a  proper  mate  for  the  type. 
,  HE  pierced  initial,  with  a  hollow 
centre  in  which  any  letter  can 
be  placed,  is  a  good  substitute 
for  the  plain  two-line  letter, 
but  at  head  and  foot  it  should 
have  true  alignment  with  its 
corresponding  lines  of  the  text. 
It  is  an  acceptable  form  for  general  service,  but 
repetition  makes  it  unpleasingly  monotonous. 


Fac  initials    Floreated  initials       155 


fac  initial,  the  typographic  sub- 
stitute for  the  eighteenth  -  century 
pierced  initial,  may  be  used  now 
with  propriety  in  imitated  reprints 
of  the  books  of  that  period,  but  it 
is  whimsically  out  of  date  in  any  modern  book. 
A  pierced  initial  made  up  of  small  flowers  of  recent 
design  is  no  better  than  the  old  fac,  for  it  always 
has  a  mechanical  appearance,  even  when  it  has  been 
most  skilfully  composed. 

initial  letter  inserted  in  a  hollow 
square  made  from  four  corner  flowers 
that  fill  a  full  circle  may  be  quite  as 
objectionable  as  the  pierced  initial. 
The  connected  lines  easily  made  by 
the  expert  designer  are  rarely  produced  by  the  com- 
bination of  movable  types. 

!      PROFUSELY     ORNAMENTED     INITIAL     of 

black-letter  with  interfacings  of  flowers 
or  vines,  or  with  long,  straggling  stream- 
ers of  tracery,  once  in  high  favor,  is  now 
deservedly  neglected.  It  had,  and  may 
have  now,  some  fitness  for  the  open  com- 
position of  poetry  or  in  a  very  open  piece 
of  display  where  its  streamers  may  stray 
into  a  blank  margin,  but  it  is  entirely 
unfit  for  any  kind  of  square-set  compo- 
sition. To  the  critical  reader  its  riotous 

decoration  is  a  discord  by  the  side  of  the  trim 

formality  of  symmetrical  lines  of 


156          Initials  often  made  too  dense 

YPE-FOUNDERS'  specimen-books 
have  engraved  initials  of  merit, 
but  in  selecting  a  series  for  gen- 
eral use  the  closeness  or  openness 
of  the  engraving  in  that  series 
must  be  considered.  The  initial 
should  be  adapted  to  the  type  with  which  it  will  be 
printed.  A  text  in  6-  or  8-point  type  may  be  graced 
by  an  initial  of  good  design  that  shows  fine  and 
close  engraving,  but  it  may  be  disappointing  if  the 
letter  has  not  been  made  to  be  printed  in  red  ink. 

TEXT  in  12-  14-  or  18- 
point  needs  an  initial 
of  bold  and  firm  lines, 
with  broad  spaces  be- 
tween the  lines.  The 
engraving  of  the  se- 
lected initial  should 
mate  with  the  type  of 
the  text  in  its  color  and 
general  effect;  it  may 
be  dense  and  gray  when 
used  with  small  type,  but  it  should  be  black  and 
solid  when  it  is  an  initial  for  large  type. 

OLD- FACED  initials  with  a  black  back- 
ground and  white  letter  may  be  used 
with  advantage  for  small  or  large  type, 
but  an  initial  surrounded  with  dense 
and  delicate  lines  that  obscure  the  clearness  of  the 
letter  is  not  at  all  pleasing  by  the  side  of  large  type. 


Initials  within  broad  borders          157 

iNE  LARGE  INITIAL  with 
open  decoration  can  be  se- 
lected with  good  effect  for  a 
text  in  10-point  or  of  larger 
body,  but  it  will  be  made 
more  effective  if  the  white 
within  the  letter  is  made  red 
by  the  use  of  a  specially  en- 
graved O  to  cover  the  naked  white.  Some  of  its 
merit  will  disappear  if  this  decorative  letter  is  much 
reduced  in  size  and  used  with  large  type. 

;NE  LARGE   DECORATED  INITIAL  is   enough 

for  the  gracing  of  a  page.  Two  or  more 
small  initials  may  appear  with  propriety 
on  the  same  page  (as  must  be  done  in 
the  Bible,  hymn-books,  and  ecclesiastic  manuals), 
nor  is  there  any  valid  objection  to  small  initials  in 
a  text  under  a  large  initial,  but  the  selection  of 
two  or  more  large  decorated  initials  of  the  same 
size  and  style  for  any  open  composition,  as  in  a 
title-page,  is  a  mistake.  They  nullify  one  another. 

LARGE  ORNAMENTAL  INITIAL  Can  Seldom 

be  used  with  good  effect  within  a  broad 
floreated  border.  This  method  of  treat- 
ing a  title-page  that  seems  bleak  may 
present  itself  to  the  compositor  as  a  good  filler  of 
vacant  space,  but  it  will  rarely  prove  satisfactory. 
The  designer  may  do  so  with  propriety  when  he 
connects  it  to  the  border  or  gives  it  a  similar  orna- 
mentation, but  the  compositor  who  has  to  make 


158         Plainness  needed  in  the  letter 

selection  from  a  type-founder's  specimen-book  will 
seldom  find  an  initial  that  suits  the  border.  When 
it  does  not  suit,  the  initial  should  be  omitted.  Or- 
nament is  the  wine  and  spice  of  typography,  and 
must  be  used  with  discretion.  Good  arrangements 
of  composition  are  often  spoiled  by  the  too  lavish 
sprinkling  of  initial  letters  and  ornamentation  of 
like  nature  that  make  the  text  insignificant. 

[E  fault  of  many  initials  is  in 
what  artists  call  their  niggling,  in 
overworking  them  with  too  many 
dense  lines  that  put  them  in  un- 
pleasiug  contrast  to  the  clearness 
and  openness  of  text  type.  The 
size  of  the  initial  should  be  selected  with  reference 
to  the  size  of  the  page :  for  24mo  and  18mo  it  may 
be  small ;  for  8vo  or  4to  it  must  be  large.  Initials 
that  are  petty  always  give  a  petty  appearance  to 
the  page.  Plantin  had  for  his  books  in  folio  some 
that  were  nearly  three  inches  square.  A  small  in- 
itial may  be  selected  with  pleasing  effect  for  lines 
under  subheadings,  but  the  initial  for  the  opening 
of  a  chapter  or  for  any  important  division  should 
be  large  and  rememberable.  If  the  initial  letter 
has  been  cut  to  show  white,  the  decorative  lines 
about  it  should  give  the  color  effect  of  pale  gray  or 
of  full  black.  If  the  gray  so  produced  is  too  pale, 
the  white  letter  can  be  made  red  by  special  engrav- 
ing. Distinctiveness  of  the  letter  always  should 
be  considered  when  black  ink  onlv  can  be  used. 


Head-bands  and  tail-pieces 


159 


general  adaptability  the  odd 
initials  designed  by  William 
Morris  for  his  Kelmscott  books, 
and  reproduced  by  the  American 
type-founders,  will  be  found  sat- 
isfactory, even  if  they  do  seem 
coarse  as  well  as  quaint.  They  deserve  study  for 
their  intelligent  contrasts  of  black,  gray,  and  white 
color.  A  black  letter  is  usually  ringed  with  a  thin 
band  of  white,  and  its  rude  lines  of  decoration  are 
made  by  white  lines  on  black,  that 
produce  the  gray  effect.  The  white 
initial  letter  in  outline  only  is  sur- 
rounded by  decorative  lines,  that 
give  the  effect  of  dark-gray  color. 
The  letter  always  has  proper  prominence,  and  the 
decoration  is  kept  subservient. 

In  the  specimen-books  of  type-founders  are  a 
few  forms  of  small  ornamented  capital  letters  that 
may  be  used  to  advantage  as  small  initials,  but 
those  that  are  too  profusely  ornamented  or  gro- 
tesquely obscure  should  be  avoided. 


HEAD-BANDS    AND    TAIL-PIECES 

After  useless  attempts  at  the  reproduction  in  two 
or  more  colors  of  the  elaborate  decoration  of  the 
fifteenth-century  illuminators,  the  early  printers 
of  books  confined  their  attempts  at  decoration  to 
designs  that  could  be  printed  in  black  only.  The 


160      Thin  head-lands  between  chapters 

broad  border  and  a  centre-band  between  columns 
had  to  be  abandoned,  for  they  wasted  paper  and 
helped  to  make  the  book  of  high  price.  Some  new 
form  had  to  be  devised,  for  the  method  of  begin- 
ning a  chapter  at  the  head  of  a  fresh  page  was  then 
almost  unknown  and  seldom  practised.  Obeying 
the  old  practice,  each  printed  chapter  closely  fol- 
lowed its  predecessor,  and  the  two  meeting  chapters 
were  separated  by  a  big  initial  or  a  line  of  large 
type  as  the  first  line  of  the  new  chapter.  This  did 
not  seem  to  be  enough.  Then  came  a  simpler  fash- 
ion of  a  plain  or  decorated  band  between  the  chap- 
ters as  the  proper  mark  of  separation. 


BS3*»3*»3*)»3*)^^ 


When  pages  were  small  and  the  chapters  were  not 
too  short,  each  chapter  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
a  new  page  under  a  broad  blank.  This  treatment 
left  the  head  of  the  page  disagreeably  bleak.  To 
fill  up  the  blank  space,  a  head-band  of  brass  rule 
or  of  type  border  was  inserted.  Sometimes  the 
head-band  was  designed  by  an  expert  who  mated 
it  in  style  with  the  following  initial  letter.  It  also 
became  necessary  to  fill  the  vacant  space  left  at 


Tail-pieces  of  triangular  form  •      161 

the  end  of  the  chapter,  which  might  be  one  half  or 
two  thirds  blank.  For  this  purpose  the  tail-piece 
was  devised.  Conforming  to  the  old  fashion  of 
setting  the  last  paragraph  of  a  chapter  in  funnel 
shape,  the  tail-piece  was  made  in  the  form  of  a  tri- 
angle, with  its  broad  side  nearest  the  type-work. 


This  method  of  decorating  the  book,  introduced  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  has  never  gone  out  of  fash- 
ion, although  it  is  seldom  used  now  for  books  of 
serious  subject-matter.  When  properly  selected, 
the  head-band  and  its  mated  initial  letter  and  tail- 
piece are  welcomed  reliefs  to  the  dulness  of  text 
type.  They  clearly  mark  important  divisions  and 
fill  space  that  might  be  unpleasingly  vacant. 


There  is  no  rule  that  arbitrarily  prescribes  the 
shapes,  sizes,  or  styles  of  these  decorations.  The 
head-band  may  be  a  pictorial  illustration  that  fills 


11 


162       Head-bands  should  be  full  width 

one  third  or  sometimes  one  half  of  the  page,  but 
when  it  is  very  large  the  type- work  below  must  be 
correspondingly  reduced  in  size.  The  form  now  in 
fashion  is  an  oblong  strip  of  decorative  lines  that 
varies  in  height  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  two 
inches,  but  there  is  a  general  agreement  among  de- 
signers that  it  must  be  the  exact  width  of  the  page 
of  type.  When  narrower  or  broader,  it  does  not 


seem  an  integral  part  of  the  book ;  it  does  seem  a 
bit  of  added  and  superfluous  patchwork.  It  usually 
has  square  endings,  but  the  ends  may  be  rounded 
with  propriety;  or  it  may  have  a  rounded  pro- 
jection at  the  top  in  the  centre,  for  the  presenta- 
tion of  a  portrait,  sketch,  or  medallion.  It  should 


be  flat  or  nearly  so  at  the  base,  and  should  not  be 
connected  with  the  initial  letter,  nor  should  it  have 
projecting  lines  that  droop  to  interfere  with  the 
type  below  and  make  insignificant  the  type-work 


Density  and  openness  to  be  considered    163 

of  the  chapter  heading.  Straggling  vines  or  lines 
of  tracery  may  project  from  an  initial  letter  into 
the  margin,  but  not  from  the  head-band. 

The  sumptuous  book  always  has  its  head-bands, 
initials,  and  tail-pieces  designed  by  the  same  artist, 
so  that  all  shall  show  a  general  similarity  of  treat- 
ment and  be  in  agreement  with  the  subject-matter. 
Properly  treated,  they  are  a  grace,  but  when  head- 
bands have  been  selected  from  those  that  have  been 
made  at  different  times  by  designers  of  unequal 
merit,  of  different  sizes  and  in  various  styles  of  en- 
graving, they  are  positive  blemishes.  The  beauty 
of  the  proposed  book  depends  upon  harmony  in 
decoration  as  much  as  on  uniformity  in  type.1 

Grayness  or  blackness  and  density  or  openness 
of  decoration  are  features  to  be  pondered.  Head- 
bands and  initials  to  be  used  with  the  types  of 
12-point  or  larger  bodies  should  show  some  corre- 
spondence in  color  with  the  types,  in  the  closeness 
and  fineness  or  in  the  openness  and  firmness  of 
their  engraved  lines.  A  text  type  in  bold -face 

l  The  printer  who  is  asked  to  duced  at  small  cost  by  the  photo- 
provide  a  series  of  decorations  engraving  process.  If  the  printer 
for  a  proposed  book  should  have  intends  to  make  use  of  these  de- 
its  designs  made  by  an  artist  signs  for  that  book  only,  he  can 
who  is  qualified  as  a  decorator,  have  emblematic  devices  appro- 
for  decoration  is  an  art  by  itself  priate  to  the  book  incorporated 
and  cannot  be  done  properly  by  in  the  decoration ;  but  if  he  pro- 
any  one,  however  high  his  merit  poses  to  use  them  afterward  for 
as  an  artist,  who  has  not  studied  other  books,  he  must  exclude  all 
decoration  as  an  independent  art.  emblems  of  special  significance 
Decoration  drawn  with  pen  and  and  instruct  the  artist  to  make 
black  ink  on  paper  can  be  repro-  the  designs  generally  applicable. 


164      Head-bands  should  mate  with  types 

may  have  decoration  in  nearly  solid  black,  with 
touches  of  white-line  ornamentation  only;  but  if 
the  text  is  to  be  in  6-  or  8-point  type  of  roman  face, 
a  closer  style  of  engraving  that  matches  the  general 
effect  of  gray  color  in  the  type  will  be  more  pleasing. 


Sharp  or  dense  lines  in  a  head-band  over  types  that 
are  relatively  coarse  or  open  seem  badly  selected. 
When  lines  too  coarse  are  put  by  the  side  of  deli- 
cate types,  the  effect  produced  is  also  unpleasing.1 
For  a  book  of  many  chapters  the  engraved  head- 
bands of  type-founders  are  seldom  suitable,  for 
they  may  be  found  too  short  or  too  long  for  the 
intended  measure,  too  dense  or  too  coarse,  or  im- 
proper mates  for  the  initial  letters  that  may  have 
been  previously  chosen.  They  are  more  serviceable 
as  marks  of  division  in  pamphlets  that  do  not  re- 
quire a  large  number  of  similar  size  and  design. 

1  It  is  customary  for  artists  to  merit  may  be  foreseen  and  pre- 
make  designs  for  decoration  on  vented  by  examining  the  design 
a  large  scale,  but  their  largeness  under  a  reducing-glass.  The 
may  be  deceptive.  What  is  clear  sketch  on  a  small  scale  may  be 
and  entirely  satisfactory  in  the  enlarged  with  some  loss  of  deli- 
drawing  may  be  petty,  foggy,  cacy,  but  with  no  loss  of  value, 
and  disappointing  when  it  has  but  the  sketch  on  a  large  scale 
been  reduced  by  the  photo-en-  with  dense  lines  will  be  monot- 
graver  to  the  size  that  is  needed  onously  gray  when  reduced,  and 
for  printing.  This  disappoint-  may  make  an  unprintable  plate. 


Borders  of  old  fashion  to  be  avoided     165 

Head-bands  made  from  combinations  of  flowers 
or  small  borders  are  vain  substitutes  for  special 
engraving.  Their  ineffectiveness  as  decoration  is 
apparent  in  the  facs  made  by  French  and  English 
printers  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Made-up  head- 
bands are  rejected  by  all  discreet  publishers,  but 
there  are  compositors  who  still  take  delight  in 
making  them  from  little  bits  of  border.  The  time 
spent  in  their  composition  is  not  justified  by  the 
result,  for  the  head-band  so  produced  is  always 
labored,  mechanical,  and  unsatisfactory.  A  clever 
designer  can  produce  in  an  hour  a  pen  sketch  of 
more  pleasing  decoration  than  can  be  made  up  by 
a  compositor  from  bits  of  border  in  a  day. 

Parallel  rules,  or  sometimes  thick  double  rules, 
have  been  selected  as  appropriate  head-bands  for 
the  chapter  heading  of  a  new  page,  but  a  feeble 
rule  is  petty  in  that  prominent  position,  nor  is  it 
pleasing  when  it  divides  two  short  chapters  on  the 
same  page.  The  blank  made  by  lines  of  quadrats  is 
more  generally  acceptable.  Thin  strips  of  border 
on  6-  to  18-point  body  can  be  used  with  better  effect, 
but  the  border  selected  should  fill  or  nearly  fill  the 
body,  and  should  have  no  corner  flower.  For  poetry 
and  very  open  composition  a  border  of  light  and 
open  lines  should  be  selected ;  for  solid  or  single- 
leaded  composition  a  border  of  strong  contrasts  of 
black  and  white  should  be  preferred.  Carefully 
avoid  the  selection  of  the  overworked  typographic 
borders  of  the  eighteenth  century,  for  the  reading 


Head-bands  of  type  borders. 


Books  not  to  be  treated  as  jobs        167 

world  has  had  enough  of  the  feeble  gray  effects 
visible  in  these  old-time  typographic  decorations. 
The  borders  now  provided  by  type-founders  are 
not  yet  hackneyed ;  they  have  more  grace,  and  show 
a  proper  contrast  of  light  and  shade.  Borders  in 
the  so-called  Elzevir  style,  or  in  the  Byzantine  or 
Turkish  style,  of  strong  black  and  white,  entirely 
free  from  dense  lines  and  overworked  gray  shad, 
ing,  will  be  found  useful  material  for  typographic 
head-bands  for  books  that  do  not  warrant  the  ex- 
pense of  special  engraving.  The  larger  pieces  are 
most  satisfactory.  They  are  not  improved,  but  are 
really  damaged,  when  surrounded  on  all  sides,  as  is 
often  done,  with  a  narrower  and  lace-like  border. 

The  typography  of  a  book  should  show  a  visible 
agreement  with  its  subject-matter.  If  addressed 
to  the  thinking  and  reasoning  faculties  of  a  mature 
reader,  as  is  the  case  in  treatises  on  law,  theology, 
or  science,  it  needs  no  bold  type  and  no  decoration ; 
but  if  it  has  been  prepared  for  the  study  of  young 
students,  the  severity  of  a  too  plain  style  may  be 
modified.  Its  subheadings  of  prominence  or  its 
rules  or  propositions  may  be  set  in  a  bolder  type, 
and  two-line  initials  or  other  trivial  changes  that 
will  make  the  text  more  comprehensible  may  be 
added.  Yet  it  does  not  need  decoration.  Bold  dis- 
play, eccentric  lettering,  and  fanciful  arrangements 
are  attractive  in  certain  kinds  of  job-work,  but 
they  are  out  of  order  in  any  book  intended  for 


168       Profuse  decoration  of  great  cost 

a  permanent  place  on  the  library  shelf.  It  is  the 
thought  of  the  author,  and  not  any  grace  of  the 
decorator,  that  is  most  prized  by  the  reader  who  is 
also  a  student.  It  follows  that  the  type-work  of  a 
book  should  be  kept  in  strict  subordination  to  the 
main  intent  of  the  author. 

In  the  ordinary  book,  avoid  decoration  and  odd 
types  that  do  not  make  the  subject-matter  clearer. 
The  great  masterpieces  of  printing  are  the  simplest. 
Plain  types  correctly  composed  and  neatly  spaced, 
with  strict  attention  to  petty  details,  clearly  printed 
in  strong  black  ink  on  unobtrusive  paper  with  ap- 
propriate margins,  have  a  charm  that  is  recognized 
by  an  inexpert.  He  may  not  know  why  they  are 
more  restful  and  attractive  than  the  profusely  dec- 
orated book,  but  he  will  see  that  the  book  so  treated 
does  show  marked  superiority  in  its  workmanship. 

Yet  books  with  decoration  are  needed.  Those 
that  are  classified  under  the  name  of  light  reading, 
not  intended  for  study,  but  for  amusement  or  in- 
formation, may  receive  ornament  in  many  forms, 
from  occasional  lines  in  red  ink  or  border  lines  of 
brass  rule  to  elaborately  engraved  head- bands,  ini- 
tials, and  tail-pieces,  broad  borderings  of  flowers  or 
rules,  explanatory  illustrations,  inks  of  many  colors, 
or  a  text  letter  of  some  eccentric  or  peculiar  de- 
sign. These  are  some  of  many  methods  of  making 
a  book  attractive,  but  most  of  them  call  for  an 
amount  of  skill,  patience,  and  expense  that  seems 
out  of  proper  proportion  to  the  result  attained. 


Novelties  in  type  a  perilous  experiment    169 

An  amateur  soon  finds  that  profuse  ornamentation 
which  must  be  treated  in  painstaking  manner  by 
every  contributor  from  the  designer  to  the  book- 
binder is  too  expensive,  and  quite  prohibitory.  It 
often  has  to  be  abandoned.  Yet  he  hopes  to  get 
the  desired  result  by  the  selection  of  eccentric  type 
for  the  text,  which  seems  to  be  the  cheapest  of  all 
his  attempts  at  improvement.  On  the  contrary,  it 
may  be  the  most  hazardous.1 

In  the  narrow  compass  prescribed  for  this  work 
it  is  impossible  to  describe  with  clearness  the  typo- 
graphic details  that  will  be  appropriate  for  every 
variety  of  book.  It  should  be  enough  to  offer  this 
suggestion :  before  undertaking  the  composition  of 


i  Ornamentation  is  not  to  be 
undervalued,  but  he  who  under- 
takes it  should  be  sure  that  it  is 
ornament  and  not  pure  meddle- 
someness. A  page  of  print,  like 
an  engraving  or  a  picture,  can 
be  spoiled  by  fussy  additions 
that  divert  the  attention  from 
the  main  subject.  The  common 
fault  of  the  amateur  is  the  filling 
up  of  blank  space  with  needless 
decoration.  The  running  title 
of  the  book,  when  not  spaced  out 
to  the  extreme  width  of  the 
measure,  is  filled  with  bits  of 
border  that  make  it  and  its  pag- 
ing figure  insignificant,  or  it  is 
fenced  off  from  the  text  below 
with  rules  that  annoy  and  do 
not  help  the  reader,  for  the  rule 
is  more  prominent  than  the  type 
of  the  text.  The  last  line  in 
every  paragraph  may  be  filled 


with  bits  of  incongruous  borders. 
Even  the  title-page  of  the  book 
may  be  filled  with  flourishes,  or 
divided  into  panels  with  borders 
of  brass  rule.  Ornament  of  this 
description,  of  ten  made  still  more 
conspicuous  with  many  colors, 
is  sometimes  demanded  by  the 
publishers  of  advertising  pam- 
phlets and  ephemeral  books,  in 
the  belief  that  this  treatment 
will  make  the  book  attractive 
and  help  speedy  sale.  When  the 
decorations  of  type- founders  fail 
to  meet  the  need,  recourse  is 
often  had  to  the  pen  drawings 
of  amateur  designers,  and  it  is 
largely  from  examples  set  by 
men  who  do  not  see  the  full  scope 
of  the  work  and  do  not  appre- 
ciate the  need  of  general  uni- 
formity that  the  compositor  re- 
ceives bad  lessons  in  decoration. 


170        Over-decoration  a  common  fault 

any  new  book  of  merit,  the  typography  of  good 
editions  of  similar  nature  should  be  studied,  and 
their  good  features  should  be  imitated  wherever 
imitation  promises  to  be  of  service.  The  design- 
ing of  entirely  new  styles  should  be  discouraged. 
It  may  be  assumed  by  the  novice  that  it  will  be 
safer  to  copy  the  best  features  of  books  of  high 
merit  than  to  attempt  the  invention  of  new  forms. 
Over-decoration  is  a  common  fault.  In  no  case 
should  much  ornament  be  added,  unless  especially 
ordered  and  unless  it  is  certain  that  the  type,  paper, 
and  presswork  of  the  book  to  be  made  will  be  of 
the  best.  Even  when  ornament  is  ordered,  there 
should  be  a  leaning  toward  simplicity.  Appropri- 
ateness should  be  considered.  Eccentricities  that 
are  pleasing  in  one  book  may  be  positively  tawdry 
in  another.  The  young  compositor  is  especially 
warned  against  the  hackneyed  decorations  of  the 
printers  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centu- 
rieSo  They  may  be  used  occasionally  with  advan- 
tage when  the  old  designs  have  been  redrawn  and 
recut  5  they  will  seldom  prove  of  real  value  if  not 
mated  with  text  types  of  their  own  period. 


GEORGE    BRUCE 


DIFFICULT  COMPOSITION 

Algebra  .  .  Tables  and  table-work  .  .  Music  .  .  Genealogies 
ALGEBRA 


HEN  composed  from  types  cast 
upon  irregular  and  unmatable 
bodies,  algebra  is  emphatically 
a  difficult  form  of  composition, 
for  it  requires  much  time- wast- 
ing justification  with  thin  leads 
or  pieces  of  thick  paper.  It 
can  be  composed  with  more  facility  if  the  needed 
types  and  rules  have  been  made  on  the  point  sys- 
tem, but  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  al- 
gebra will  be  troublesome.  It  has  rules  of  its  own 
for  spacing  and  division  that  must  be  observed, 
and  the  compositor  needs  some  skill  in  the  art  of 

171 


172  Signs  used  in  algebra 

combining  in  a  workmanlike  manner,  yet  by  new 
methods,  the  rules,  fractions,  and  abbreviations  of 
different  bodies.  A  text  in  10-point  may  require 
characters  varying  in  height  from  5-  to  72-point. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  algebraic  signs 
provided  by  type-founders  as  a  full  assortment  for 
ordinary  work,  but  some  of  the  characters  are 
needed  only  in  books  of  higher  mathematics : 


+  plus 

=  nearly  equal 

A  triangle 

—  minus 

to 

|   integration 

X  multiplied  by 

~  difference 

j 

-5-  divided  by 

=  difference  be- 

r integration 

=  equal  to 

tween 

•'    of  a  quaternion 

:  ratio 

a  variation 

=F  minus  or  plus 

::  proportion 

V  square  root 

.*.  hence,  there- 

=*= plus  or  minus 

-^  cube  root 

fore 

<  less  than 

0  degree 

v  because 

>  greater  than 

'  minute 

oo  infinity 

<  not  less  than 

"  second 

l_  right  angle 

>  not  greater 

O  circle 

-L  perpendicu- 

than 

D  square 

lar  to 

^  equivalent  to 

CZI  rectangle 

=  identical  with 

^  not  equal  to 

/  angle 

=  approaches 

Before  he  begins  composition,  the  novice  should 
learn  the  names  and  uses  of  the  signs,  and  should 
closely  study  their  arrangement  in  some  approved 
treatise.  Alphabetical  letters  and  the  figures  that 
usually  accompany  them  need  no  explanation,  for 


Hoots,  parentheses,  and  brackets       173 

they  are  provided  in  every  complete  font  of  roman 
and  italic  type.  For  use  as  exponents  or  indices, 
thus  xn,  x(n\  xn,  italic  lower-case  letters  are  pre- 
ferred.1 


Characters  on  5-point  body. 

The  signs  on  the  previous  page  are  on  10-point 
body,  but  signs  are  also  made  on  5-  6-  8-  and  12- 
point  bodies.  Two  bodies  are  often  used  together. 
The  radical  sign  ^  is  required  on  many  bodies 
from  5-  to  72-point,  and  the  figure  that  defines  its 
power  should  be  nested  in  its  angle. 


Different  sizes  of  parenthesis  and  bracket,  varying 
from  12-  to  44-point,  will  be  needed  to  inclose  the 
different  divisions  of  a  compounded  formula. 


BOOS  n 


1  In  some  formulas  there  may 
be  an  occasional  capital,  or  a  let- 
ter of  the  Greek  alphabet,  or  in- 
ferior letters  in  roman,  but  they 
are  rare.  When  roman  letters 


are  used  for  superiors,  the  infe- 
riors always  appear  in  italic,  or 
vice  versa.  The  tendency  now 
is  to  the  selection  of  but  few 
alphabetical  letters. 


174          Braces,  fractions,  and  rules 

Braces  of  light  but  firm  face,  in  sections  as  well  as 
in  one  piece,  are  made  of  different  lengths  from 
10-  to  72-point.  Like  the  parenthesis  and  bracket, 
they  are  of  different  lengths,  but  on  6-point  body. 


Piece-fractions  are  often  required,  and  special  care 
should  be  taken  to  get  those  that  are  very  distinct. 

11312_L.3_5..7  JL13.i2.i5.5.I. 

T^'43'38888  424338888 

A  much-used  notation  for  the  fraction  nowadays 
is  the  "  solidus,"  as  2/3,  where  2  and  3  are  printed 
in  the  same  font  as  if  integers. 

Superior  letters  (usually  in  italic)  and  figures 
must  be  provided  for  each  one  of  the  two  bodies  that 
have  been  selected.  Inferior  letters  and  figures 
are  not  so  common,  but  the  assortment  is  not  com- 
plete if  they  have  not  been  provided. 

a    b    c    d    e    a    b    c    d    e  1    2   3    4    5    1    2   3    4   5 

Superior  and  inferior  letters  and  figures  on  10-point  body. 

The  brass  rule  to  be  preferred  for  the  dividing 
line  is  on  2-point  body,  for  it  will  give  the  least 
trouble  in  justification.  Labor-saving  rule  of  this 


Labor-saving  rule  of  service          175 

body  cut  to  even  ems  and  ens  of  the  text  type,  and 
in  abundant  supply,  will  be  a  valuable  aid  to  neat 
composition.1 

Algebraic  expressions  that  show  the  two  lines 
of  numerator  and  denominator,  or  of  dividend  and 
divisor,  separated  by  the  usual  dividing  line,  may 
need  root  signs,  braces,  brackets,  and  parentheses 
twice  and  sometimes  thrice  the  height  of  the  text 
letter.     If  the  text  type  is  on  10-point          c^ 
body,  the  radical  sign  will  be  of   20-        \9o?76 
point  body  when  small  figures  are  used 
below  the  vinculum,  as  in  the  upper  ex- 


ample.  If  figures  of  a  larger  body  are  ^127-96 
ordered  under  the  vinculum,  then  a  radical  sign  of 
25-point  is  needed  for  neat  presentation  of  figures. 
The  characters  needed  for  a  treatise  on  algebra 
comprise  sorts  on  many  bodies  that  cannot  wisely 
be  stowed  in  one  case,  for  which  reason  the  dia- 
gram of  an  algebraic  case  is  omitted.  The  laying 
of  sorts  for  the  composition  of  algebra  is  governed 
by  personal  choice.  The  quarter-section  case  that 
can  be  placed  by  the  side  of  the  italic  cases  most 
needed  will  be  found  of  good  service.  The  order  of 
laying  should  be  exactly  the  same  for  every  size, 


l  It  is  not  good  policy  to  allow  justification,  and  give  needless 

the  compositor  to  cut  rules  as  he  trouble  to  maker-up,  stoneman, 

needs  them.     Rules  so  treated  and  electrotyper.     With  proper 

are  liable  to  be  irregular  as  to  forethought,  algebraic  composi- 

length,  with  burs  on  cut  edges  tion  can  be  made  as  solid  and 

or  slight  bends  in  the  body,  and  secure  as  that  of  ordinary  roman 

these  defects  tend  to  insecure  type. 


176        Methods  of  spacing  and  lining 

and  a  clearly  written  label  should  be  pasted  on 
each  box  to  prevent  wrong  distribution. 

The  composition  of  algebra  differs  from  that  of 
the  ordinary  text  in  its  spacing,  purposely  made 
uneven.  The  italic  letters  that  serve  as  symbols 
for  quantities  must  always  be  set  close  together. 
Superior  or  inferior  letters,  figures,  and  fractions 
are  controlled  by  the  same  rule.  But  the  signs 
+  —  x  -T-  =  >  <  must  be  treated  as  distinct  words, 
and  be  separated  from  the  context  by  spaces  of 
noticeable  width  : 

2  abx  -  x2       =  14  ab  -  1  x 
3ax  =  2bx     +  ab 


Superior  figures  are  always  set  close  up  to  their 
proximate  letters,  but  the  larger  figures  of  the  text 
type  should  be  separated  from  following  italic  let- 
ters by  a  four-  or  five-to-em  space.  The  space  may 
be  omitted  only  in  a  very  crowded  line  : 


In  algebraic  formulas  that  have  mutual  relation  or 
dependency,  the  figures  of  whole  numbers  must  be 
kept  in  strict  vertical  line  according  to  the  rules  of 

Sx  +     9#  +     8z  -  2700 
12  x  +  12  y  +  Wz  -  3600 

ax  +  by  +  cz  -  d 
a'x  +  b'y  +  c'z  -  d' 
a"x  +  b"y  +  c"z  -  d" 


Terms  to  be  distinguished  in  text      177 

arithmetical  notation.  In  formulas  that  have  many 
consecutive  lines  with  few  or  no  figures,  the  signs 
+  and  — ,  which  separate  distinct  terms,  must  \)e 
kept  in  vertical  line.  This  rule  for  vertical  lining 
sometimes  applies  also  to  the  sign  x  for  multipli- 
cation and  to  -f-  for  division. 

It  often  happens  that  a  long  formula  cannot  be 
put  in  one  line  of  the  type  selected  for  other  for- 
mulas. When  great  compactness  is  desired,  as  is 
important  in  some  school-books,  it  is  customary  to 
set  this  long  line  in  types  of  a  smaller  body  that 
will  take  in  one  line  all  the  characters.  When  it 
can  be  done,  it  is  better  practice  to  put  the  matter 
in  two  lines  in  large  type,  but  the  composition  can- 
not be  divided  arbitrarily.  The  place  selected  for 
division  should  be  at  one  of  the  signs  +,  — ,  or  =, 
for  they  represent  transition  points  at  the  end  of 
distinct  terms.  The  part  turned  over  in  a  second 
line  must  be  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  measure : 

ax2  -  bx  =  ex  -  d 

Expressions  that  would  divide  badly  are  frequently 
put  intact  in  the  middle  of  a  following  line. 

Connective  words  like  as,  in,  again,  that  precede 
the  expression  in  that  line,  are  placed  at  its  begin- 

or  again  y  -  x  =  4 

ning,  and  a  broad  white  blank  follows,  to  show  that 
the  connective  word  is  not  a  part  of  the  formula. 

12 


178      Decimal  fractions  lined  vertically 

Figures  inclosed  in  parentheses  or  brackets  that 
are  inserted  to  refer  to  other  formulas  or  terms  in 
the  same  book  must  also  be  separated  from  the 
formula  in  that  line  by  the  same  method.  They 
may  be  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  the  line.  If  a 
mark  of  punctuation  is  needed,  it  must  be  put  after 
the  bracket  or  parenthesis : 

or  ax  +  by  +  cz  =  d  [1J ; 

Whole  numbers  expressed  in  many  figures  are  not 
separated  by  the  comma  in  triplets,  as  is  usual  in 
arithmetical  notation,  but  in  a  decimal  number  the 
integral  part  should  be  separated  from  the  frac- 
tional part  by  the  decimal  point.  These  fractions 
and  the  decimal  point  that  precedes  them  must  be 
kept  in  a  vertical  line  in  all  the  rows  of  figures, 
without  regard  to  the  irregular  lining  at  the  be- 
ginning or  ending  of  the  lines : 

927.67892254 
3643851.5468 
22982.657462 

When  many  characters  must  be  put  in  one  line, 
the  spaces  between  terms  and  signs  may  be  rela- 
tively thinner.  The  space  before  or  after  a  sign 
like  +  or  —  may  be  omitted  when  this  sign  is  next 
to  a  superior  or  inferior  character,  but  it  is  better 
practice  to  use  the  space  in  all  places  where  it 
will  add  to  the  clearness  of  the  expression. 


When  spaces  are  not  used  179 

A  visibly  wider  space  must  be  presented  between 
distinct  expressions  shown  in  the  same  line : 


No  space  should  be  put  between  alphabetical  letters 
and  superior  figures  that  are  grouped  in  one  term 
and  inclosed  in  parentheses  or  brackets  : 

28  aNPcdW     6  ab(a  +  &)     (6  a2&c%5)3  =  216  cPPW8 

When  an  author  wishes  that  an  expression  in  the 
text  should  have  noticeable  distinction,  he  orders 
or  marks  more  space  before  and  after  that  expres- 
sion, as  it  here  appears : 

The  quotient  of   18  aW   by   6a2bx  is   3a?x  . 

As  a  term  cannot  be  divided  with  part  of  its  char- 
acters at  the  end  of  one  line  and  the  other  part  at 
the  beginning  of  the  next  line,  some  irregularity  of 
spacing  has  to  be  tolerated. 

Thus  the  quotient  of  15  a?lfix  by  3  a25  is 
written  5a°6  ;  but  we  have  seen  that  the  quo- 
tient should  be  56$  ,  as  the  factor  a°  does 
not  alter  the  product,  since  a°  is  equal  to  1. 

The  points  of  punctuation  that  separate  clauses  in 
the  text  have  a  broad  space  before  them  in  any 
clause  that  ends  with  an  algebraic  term. 


180  Treatment  of  long  formulas 

When  a  long  algebraic  expression  cannot  be  put 
neatly  in  a  single  line,  it  may  be  divided,  but  the 
characters  in  a  term  inclosed  within  brackets  or 
parentheses  must  not  be  divided  at  all.  It  may  be 
again  repeated  that  the  proper  place  for  division  is 
at  the  signs  of  operation  +  or  — ,  occasionally  x  or  -H  : 

(am  +  a'n  -  a")x  +  (bm  +  I'n  -  V»)y  + 
(cm  +  c'n  -  c"}z  =  dm  +  d'n  +  d" 

To  prevent  the  improper  division  of  characters  in 
the  middle  of  a  term,  the  first  line  may  be  made 
shorter  than  the  second : 


1  7T"! 

-  £,     n^l-v'O  +  N"  +  n'(n'n"  -  N")  — 

In  the  following  example  the  entire  expression 
within  the  vertical  braces  is  to  be  multiplied  by  the 
fraction  at  its  left.  The  arrangement  of  the  terms 
within  the  braces  is  suggested  partly  by  the  length 
of  one  of  these  terms,  the  second,  and  partly  by 
considerations  of  symmetry.  Observe  that  the 
fraction  at  the  left  is  so  placed  that  its  dividing 
line  meets  the  central  point  of  the  brace. 

2  n'(p"  +  p'N") 


gf 


(nf  -  V)p'p" 


+  ~\  n?(l  -  v")  +  N"  +  n'(n'n"-  N")- 

A/ 1  pll 

1  _  v//)  _  (n'  _l)N//]  -  (2n'  -  l)p 


p'p" 


Value  of  point  system  181 

The  rule  that  separates  the  numerator  from  the 
denominator,  or  a  dividend  from  a  divisor,  must 
be  exactly  of  the  length  of  the  longer  term,  as  is 
customary  in  arithmetical  notation,  and  the  shorter 
term  must  be  placed  over  or  under  the  longer  term 
exactly  in  the  centre  : 

2  268          c-fa/  B 


15         10000  a  0.00001 

When  one  of  two  terms  is  simple  and  the  other  is 
double,  the  point  of  punctuation,  if  one  is  ordered, 
should  be  opposite  the  dividing  rule  of  first  term : 


i  z      x  —  *  '        b  ~*~ 

"•      *  —  ?          "V 


V 


2a 


The  preceding  illustration  shows  the  value  of  the 
point  system  in  algebraic  composition.  In  the  first 
formula  we  have,  in  the  middle  of  the  term,  two 
lines  of  10-point  and  one  dividing  rule  of  2 -point, 
that  make  its  full  height  22  points.  The  characters 
x  =  before,  and  =  12  after  (each  on  10-point  body), 
are  easily  made  to  centre  with  the  cross-rule.  If  this 
formula  were  the  only  one  in  the  mixed  line,  these 
characters  could  be  solidly  justified  in  that  posi- 
tion with  an  upper  and  a  lower  line  of  6-point  quad- 
rats, but  the  second  formula  in  the  line  is  of  greater 
height,  for  it  has  two  lines  of  10-point  and  three 
rules  of  2-point,  and  must  be  26  points  in  height. 


182        Point  system  makes  solid  work 

To  justify  this  second  formula  solidly  with  the  first, 
an  upper  and  a  lower  lead  of  2-point  must  be  added 
to  the  first  formula.  Point  bodies  simplify  justi- 
fication. If  types  and  rules  are  not  on  the  point 
system,  the  exact  justification  of  two  formulas  in 
one  measure  will  be  much  more  troublesome. 

The  solid  manner  in  which  algebraic  formulas 
can  be  constructed  is  plainly  represented  in  the 
following  diagram,  copied  with  slight  alteration 
from  the  Katechismus  der  Buchdruckerhunst : 


or 


ft       I3/  .   ,/34°27'\    .         2/34°0'3"\ 
tang  -  -  j/sm>  (-— )  +  cos*  (— — ) 

=  |/te)dt  +  Const.  -  ^  f  (z)  etc. 


S    H  as:  asa  s|  a  B)  23 


When  a  short  but  complex  formula  is  incorpo- 
rated in  the  middle  of  a  line  of  plain  descriptive 
matter,  it  is  customary  to  begin  the  work  by  set- 
ting up  this  formula  first,  which  is  then  temporarily 
put  aside  in  another  stick.1  Then  the  descriptive 
text  that  begins  the  line  is  set  in  the  first  stick.  If 
the  text  is  of  10-point,  and  the  formula  is  22  points 
high,  this  difference  of  12  points  must  be  made  up 

1  A  second  stick  with  knee  adjustable  by  a  clasp  (Grover  pattern) 
will  be  helpful  in  the  composition  of  complex  formulas. 


Formulas  incorporated  in  the  text      183 

by  setting  a  line  of  6  -point  quadrats  tinder  the  text 
matter,  and  adding  over  that  matter  another  line 
of  6-point,  or  two  lines  of  7-point  can  be  used. 
This  treatment  will  bring  the  text  matter  on  the 
central  line  of  the  formula,  where  it  should  be. 
Then  the  formula  temporarily  put  aside  in  another 
stick  can  be  added,  and  the  remainder  of  the  text 
for  that  line  can  be  composed  in  like  manner.  To 
produce  solid  justification,  leads  and  cards  must  be 
avoided  wherever  it  can  be  done  safely. 

The  incorporation  of  a  short  complex  algebraic 
expression  within  a  line  of  descriptive  text  in  plain 
roman  type  unavoidably  produces  wide  blanks  be- 
tween the  lines  of  that  text.  Some  authors  prefer 
to  have  short  expressions  in  the  centre  of  a  separate 
line,  but  this  method  cannot  be  resorted  to  when 
they  appear  too  frequently  in  the  copy. 


2  N 
The  two  expressions  =^  —  -  and        2    are  equal 

when  N  is  equal  to  n2  ;  and  when  N  is  nearly 

2  N        ,  N+n* 
equal  to  n2,  the  expressions  =  —  -  and        2 

are  nearly  equal  ;  therefore  their  arithmetical 
mean  is  nearly  equal  to  their  geometrical  mean. 

The  vinculum  that  projects  from  the  root  sign 
must  be  of  the  exact  length  of  the  expression  it  is 
intended  to  cover  : 


\162 


184        Exponents  and  inferior  letters 

In  an  expression  which  involves  two  radical  or  root 
signs,  where  the  vinculum  of  one  root  overlaps  that 
of  the  other  root,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  illustration 
that  follows,  the  superior  vinculum  must  show  a 
visible  separation  from  the  lower  one : 


Index  figures  are  often  needed  as  exponents.  When 
the  signs  provided  are  solid  and  not  slotted,  the 
compositor  must  have  them  properly  nicked  for  the 
insertion  of  the  figure.  This  nicking  can  be  done 
with  knife  or  chisel,  if  the  compositor  is  handy  with 
tools,  but  it  will  be  made  in  a  more  workmanlike 
manner  with  proper  tools  by  the  electrotyper.  In 
either  case  the  nicking  causes  annoying  delay. 

Exponents,  whether  integral  or  fractional,  should 
be  in  italic,  and  be  placed  as  superiors  on  the  upper 
line  of  the  symbols  that  they  define. 


mp 
amq  al  anq 


Inferior  letters,  or  subscripts  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  are  less  frequently  used,  but  they  should  be 
in  italic,  and  be  placed  below  the  line  of  the  letters 
to  which  they  are  attached. 

Q         ,7  p          v  "p      A 

*Jfn — !*•  ^m.n  •*•  JT  n  —  •£*-im.n 


Height  of  parentheses  and  brackets      185 

Formulas  may  be  written  in  which  the  same  letter 
will  take  an  exponent  and  a  subscript,  as  it  does 
in  XjW~  =  0.  There  are  a  few  that  require  two 
subscripts,  as  in  tang  oXm  =  Psi. 

Integral  signs  may  take  a  letter  at  the  foot  and 
at  the  top.  Sometimes  these  letters  have  expo- 
nents or  subscripts  arranged  thus  : 


,t 

I     (T-R)  / 

J  J 


Vdx 


The  abbreviations  sin,  log,  cos,  tang  (for  sine, 
logarithm,  cosine,  tangent)  should  be  in  roman 
character  in  all  formulas,  and  should  not  be  fol- 
lowed by  an  abbreviating  period.  The  superior 
figure  that  may  follow  the  abbreviation  of  sin, 
cos,  etc.,  must  not  be  separated  by  a  space. 


Parentheses,  brackets,  and  integral  signs  that  pre- 
cede or  inclose  a  fractional  expression  must  be  of 
the  exact  height  of  the  expression,  including  divid- 
ing or  vinculum  rules. 


This  must  be  done  if  but  one  of  the  parentheses, 
or  but  one  of  the  brackets,  comes  immediately  after 
or  before  a  fractional  term.  It  must  also  be  done 


186      Marking  of  figures  for  logarithms 

when  one  or  more  of  the  intermediate  terms  of  the 
expression  are  fractional,  the  first  and  last  terms 
being  integral,  as  in 


n'n"  -  N"    ~    -  y* 

But  if  the  brackets  or  parentheses  inclose  integral 
terms  only  (as  shown  below),  they  should  be  on  the 
same  body  as  that  of  the  characters  within  them  : 

n'\n  +  (n'n"  -  N")p'p"\ 

When  radical  signs  occur  within  parentheses,  the 
parentheses  should  be  of  the  same  height  as  the 
radical  sign  : 

<Va>      a  ,       /   p  p 

~~       ~  +       ' 


When  many  parentheses  have  to  be  employed,  one 
within  another,  they  may  be  selected  of  different 
heights  according  to  relative  importance,  but  they 
make  an  awkward  formula.  It  is  better  practice 
to  use  a  bracket  for  the  exterior  sign  of  inclosure, 
and  this  bracket  need  be  no  higher  than  the  in- 
terior parentheses. 

In  a  logarithm  the  short  stroke  that  overlaps  a 
negative  integral  figure  or  "characteristic"  must 
not  be  wider  than  the  figure.  If  the  characteristic 
have  two  figures,  the  stroke  should  overlap  both. 

2".3010300  15.1345769 


Composition  of  complex  expressions      187 

In  the  expression  of  fractions  continued  in  many 
different  lines,  the  figures  selected  for  the  divisors 
should  be  placed  ex- 
actly under  the  figures  =  1 H - 

used  as  dividends,  and  4+ 


the  divisor  rule  should  9+  - 


exactly  overlap  these  2+ 


figures,  as  is  shown  in  1+  — 


the  illustration.  l_l_l 

Manuscript  copy  of 

algebra  is  usually  prepared  with  care :  the  writer 
makes  clear  the  difference  between  the  ordinary 
and  the  superior  characters,  and  tries  to  put  no 
more  letters  and  figures  in  the  manuscript  line 
than  can  be  properly  expressed  in  one  line  of  type. 
Yet  it  often  happens  that  the  compositor  may  be 
perplexed  by  the  inequality  in  the  length  of  the 
characters  above  and  below  the  dividing  rule  in  a 
complex  formula.  Will  it  come  or  not  come  within 
the  measure  without  wrong  spacing  ?  The  old  way 
was  to  set  all  the  characters  (those  above  as  well  as 
below  the  dividing  rule)  in  one  long  line  and  put 
them  aside  upon  a  short  galley,  where  the  spaces 
could  be  rearranged. 

It  is  a  better  way  to  begin  and  complete  the  com- 
position of  the  fractional  portion  of  the  expression 
in  a  Grover  stick,  which  readily  allows  a  readjust- 
ment of  the  measure  and  of  the  spacing  between 
terms  or  factors.  If  this  fractional  expression  con- 
sists of  two  lines  of  10-point  and  one  2-point  rule, 


188  Tables  and  table-ivork 

the  height  of  the  formula  will  be  22  points,  which 
must  also  be  the  height  of  the  larger  brackets  or 
parentheses,  if  they  are  needed.  When  these  signs 
have  been  reckoned,  the  compositor  can  mentally 
determine  the  spacing  of  the  term  that  precedes  or 
follows  the  complex  part.  He  puts  in  the  stick  of 
full  measure  two  blank  lines  of  6-point  quadrats 
(one  above  and  one  below  the  10-point  line),  and 
then  adds  to  them  the  complex  part  already  set  in 
the  stick. 

The  building  up  of  a  formula  of  complex  ex- 
pressions would  be  easier  if  the  italic  lower-case 
letters  could  be  cast  on  adjusted  sets  with  spaces 
that  exactly  make  up  their  deficiencies.  Too  many 
letters,  not  fractional  parts  of  the  em,  have  to  be 
justified  to  make  solid  composition. 


TABLES    AND    TABLE-WORK 

When  the  compositor  had  to  cut  the  brass  rules 
for  a  table  with  a  tinman's  shears  and  mitre  them 
with  a  file,  he  had  good  cause  to  dislike  table-work. 
These  clumsy  tools  are  seldom  used  now,  for  every 
modern  printing-house  has  small  machines  that  cut 
and  mitre  rules  quickly  and  neatly.  The  machines 
are  not  always  needed,  for  labor-saving  rule  of 
many  lengths  and  with  right  and  left  mitres  is  in 
common  use.  Nor  is  the  mitring  of  corners  always 
obligatory  on  odd  lengths,  for  neat  angles  can  be 


Illustrations  of  simple  forms          189 

made  on  flat-faced  rule  by  a  simpler  process,  as  has 
been  shown  on  page  53.  Thick  borders  are  no 
longer  in  favor ;  shrewd  critics  say  that  the  border 
must  not  be  blacker  than  the  words  and  figures  to 
be  inclosed.  In  many  recent  books  of  fair  work- 
manship, the  tables  are  not  inclosed  in  a  border, 
nor  are  brass  rules  put  between  the  columns  in  any 
place  where  they  do  not  give  a  greater  clearness  to 
the  figures. 

Improved  tools  and  materials  and  the  tendency 
toward  greater  simplicity  lighten  the  labor  of  table- 
work,  but  they  do  not  materially  change  its  nature. 
Tables  require  more  skill  than  plain  type-setting, 
but  this  skill  is  not  entirely  that  of  hand- work.  A 
table  in  manuscript  can  be  properly  set  only  when 
it  has  been  wisely  planned  by  previous  head-work. 

The  method  to  be  observed  in  setting  up  the  dif- 
ferent columns  of  a  table  of  words  and  figures  is 
not  unlike  that  practised  in  setting  the  columns  of 
a  newspaper.  One  column  must  be  made  perfect 
in  length,  headings,  and  blanking  out  before  the 
next  can  be  put  by  its  side.  Each  column  that  con- 
tains words  must  be  separately  composed  in  its  own 
narrow  measure.  Work  so  done  is  often  tedious, 
but  when  the  table  has  been  properly  planned,  and 
each  column  correctly  justified,  much  of  its  diffi- 
culty has  been  removed. 

Explanations  of  the  methods  now  in  use  may 
begin  with  illustrations  of  the  simplest  forms  of 
table-work.  Words,  names,  or  figures  of  the  same 


190    Half  measure  for  alphabetized  names 

class  are  usually  set  in  columns,  for  the  columns 
classify  them,  and  make  reading  easier  and  more 
rememberable.  To  set  one  after  another  the  names 
of  persons,  or  the  specification  of  different  amounts 
in  certain  years,  in  ordinary  paragraph  style,  is 
confusing  to  the  reader.  It  is  a  much  commoner 
practice  to  arrange  them  in  columns,  thus : 

Edward  A.  Adams  J.  Pierpont  Morgan 

George  F.  Baker  Levi  P.  Morton 

John  Claflin  Alexander  E.  Orr 

Elbert  H.  Gary  William  Rockefeller 

Abram  S.  Hewitt  James  Stillman 

Morris  K.  Jesup  William  K.  Vanderbilt 

To  keep  these  names  in  vertical  line  and  in  alpha- 
betical order,  make  up  a  stick  to  one  half  the  width 
of  the  broad  measure,  and  set  and  justify  each  name 
separately.  Empty  the  lines  so  set  in  order  on  a 
galley,  and  then  make  up  to  the  broad  measure. 
Allowance  for  a  vertical  brass  rule  between  the 
columns  is  sometimes  made,  but  the  rule  is  not 
needed,  for  the  white  space  at  the  ends  of  lines  in 
the  first  column  is  a  sufficient  separation^ 

1  Yet  a   separating   lead   be-  line  in  one  stick  and  in  the  broad 

tween  the  columns  may  be  of  measure  by  the  aid  of  a  remov- 

service.    If  a  name  is  added  or  able  justifying  gauge,  as  will  be 

cancelled  in  the  proof,  the  lead  hereafter  explained;  but  if  the 

will  lighten  the  labor  of  making  list  of  names  is  long  and  must 

the  needed  change.     It  is  not  appear  on  more  than  one  page, 

practicable  to  set  the  two  col-  the  alphabetizing  of  the  names 

umns  in  broad  measure,  for  the  may  be  faulty,  and  the  fault  will 

second  column  will  be  more  or  be  hard  to  correct.    The  time 

less  out  of  vertical  line.  It  is  pos-  saved  by  the  justifying  gauge 

sible  to  set  the  two  names  of  one  will  be  lost  in  correction. 


Broad  measure  for  figures  only        191 

Columns  of  names  were  once  set  in  full  capitals 
of  the  type  of  the  text,  but  this  treatment  makes 
them  needlessly  and  offensively  bold.  Small  capi- 
tals' with  capital  initials  are  preferred  by  many  for 
a  long  list  of  signatures  at  the  end  of  a  document. 
For  a  list  of  names  inserted  in  the  body  of  a  text, 
plain  roman  lower-case  is  now  in  more  favor.  Pe- 
riods should  be  used  after  all  abbreviated  names, 
but  there  is  no  need  of  comma  or  period  at  the  end 
of  names  arranged  in  columns. 

Columns  of  figures  only,  on  the  en-quadrat  body, 
that  do  not  call  for  justification  in  separate  mea- 
sures, may  be  safely  set  in  broad  measure. 

Population  of  the  United  States 
Year  Total  Males  Females 

1900 76,303,387 39,059,242 37,244,145 

1890 63,069,796 32,315,063 30,754,693 

1880 50,155,783 25,518,820 24,636,963 

1870 38,558,371 19,493,565 19,064,806 

1860 31,443,321 16,085,204 15,358,117 

1850 23,191,876 11,837,660 11,354,216 

For  the  ordinary  pamphlet  a  table  of  this  kind  can 
be  set  in  broad  measure  without  vertical  rules.  For 
a  work  of  great  nicety  it  is  customary  to  add  the 
rules,  which  may  be  of  service  in  filling  up  the  wide 
gaps  produced  by  a  succession  of  leaders. 

When  figures  are  planned  for  many  columns  that 
must  be  kept  in  timely  or  numerical  order,  each 


192 


Treatment  of  narrow  tables 


column  should  be  separately  composed,  so  that  all 
can  be  made  up  in  order  when  the  matter  in  the 
table  has  to  appear  on  more  than  one  page. 

Number  of  ems  to  the  linear  foot 
American  system 


3-point...289.15 

10-point.86.74 

28-point.  30.98 

3^  -point.  247.  84 

11-point.  78.86 

30-point.  28.91 

4-point..  .216.86 

12-point.72.28 

32-point.27.10 

4j£  -point.  192.  77 

1  4-point.  61.96 

3  6-point.  24.  09 

5-point...  173.49 

1  5-point.  57.  83 

40-point.  21.68 

5  i^-point.  157.72 

1  6-point.  54.  21 

42-point.  20.65 

6-point...  144.57 

18  -point.  48.  19 

44-point  .  19.71 

7-point...  123.92 

20-point.  43.37 

48-point.  18.07 

8-point...  108.43 

22-point.39.43 

60-point.  14.45 

9-point...   96.38 

24-point.36.14 

72-point  .  12.04 

A  table  that  specifies  words,  dates,  and  amounts 
in  columns  can  be  set  in  a  broad  measure,  but  if 
any  column  has  words  of  irregular  length,  it  is  bet- 
ter practice  to  set  the 
columns  in  at  least  two 
distinct  measures.1 

Tables  that  give  a  col- 
umn arrangement  to  the 
name,  business,  and  resi- 
dence of  many  persons  are  properly  connected  with 
leaders,  but  the  columns  should  not  be  separated 

1 A  table  that  has  but  two  or  and  neater  in  a  narrowed  mea- 

three  narrow  columns  should  not  sure,  with  type  set  by  its  side, 

be  spread  out  to  span  the  full  as  shown  above  in  the  table  of 

measure.     It  will  be  as  readable  half  measure. 


1890. 

.  .  Jan.  12.  .  .J 

^160.50 

1891. 
1892. 

..May  1... 
..Feb.  3... 

150.50 
125.00 

1893. 

.  .  Jan.  20  ... 

175.00 

1894. 

..Feb.  3... 

168.00 

1895. 

..May  16... 

160.00 

Justifying  slugs  in  broad  measure      193 

by  vertical  column  rules  when  the  matter  has  been 
prepared  to  be  read  across  the  columns. 

When  it  is  intended  that  the  initial  letters  of  each 
column  shall  be  in  vertical  line,  three  distinct  mea- 
sures can  be  made,  each  column  being  separately 
justified  and  afterward  re-made  up  to  the  full  width 
of  the  broad  measure.  A  quicker  method  is  often 
adopted,  as  is  here  explained : 

Begin  by  cutting  a  gauge  from  a  type-metal  slug 
or  a  brass  rule  of  proper  thickness  to  the  combined 
width  of  the  second  and  third  columns,  as  is  shown 
in  the  strip  A.  Then  cut  the  gauge  B  of  the  width 


B 

A   - • un , m,m, „ „ , „ ,„ 

R.  Hoe  &  Co Printing  Presses .  504  Grand  Street 

Lovejoy  Company  . .  Electrotypers  . .  .  446  Pearl  Street 
Harper  &  Brothers  .  Publishers 331  Pearl  Street 

of  third  column  only.  After  setting  in  a  stick  of 
full  measure  the  names  in  the  first  column,  put  the 
long  slug  A  in  the  stick,  and  justify  the  name  col- 
umn up  to  slug  A.  Then  remove  that  slug  and  set 
the  words  for  the  second  column,  which  should  be 
justified  in  like  manner  to  meet  the  slug  B.  That 
done,  remove  slug  B  and  justify  to  the  end  of  the 
measure.  This  method  saves  time  and  makes  un- 
necessary the  use  of  three  distinct  measures  in  as 
many  sticks  and  the  combining  afterward  of  the 
three  lines  in  one  full  line,  but  it  calls  for  care  in 
justification. 

13 


194         To  determine  width  of  columns 

Slugs  as  justifying  gauges  can  be  used  for  more 
than  three  columns,  but  they  are  not  recommended 
when  the  words  in  any  column  have  to  be  turned 
over  and  fill  two  lines  of  the  column.  They  can 
be  used  with  most  advantage  for  undivided  matter 
that  reads  across  the  page.  The  turning  over  of 
words  in  one  column  and  the  unavoidable  insertion 
of  parallel  quadrat  lines  in  other  columns  is  always 
to  be  avoided,  for  the  table  so  treated  has  a  rag- 
ged appearance.  A  name  or  a  business  with  words 
too  long  to  come  within  the  prescribed  limit  of  a 
column  may  project  a  little  in  the  following  column, 
even  if  this  projection  does  destroy  the  vertical 
lining  of  its  initials.  An  occasional  projection 
carries  with  it  the  apology  for  its  unavoid ability.1 
The  first  difficulty  met  by  the  apprentice  in  try- 
ing to  compose  a  table  from  manuscript  copy  that 
has  many  columns  separated  by  brass  rules  and 
with  cross-headings  in  small  type  is  his  uncertainty 
about  the  proper  width  of  each  column.  Before  he 
begins  work  on  any  table,  simple  or  complex,  he 
should  know  whether  it  is  or  is  not  to  be  set  with 
dividing  column  rules  and  inclosed  in  a  border  rule. 
Next  in  order  should  come  the  inquiry  as  to  the 
space  it  may  or  must  occupy :  whether  it  is  to  be 
in  its  height  a  part  of  a  full  page  or  a  full  page ; 

1  When  the  words  in  any  line  type  that  will  prevent  abbrevia- 

of  a  narrow  column  are  too  many  tions  is  to  be  preferred.    The 

for  the  measure,  they  may  be  ab-  turning  over  in  a  separate  line 

breviated  or  set  in  smaller  type  of  the  excess  of  words  should 

if  the  author  permits.      Small  be  the  last  resort. 


To  determine  width  of  columns        195 

whether  it  is  to  be  a  part  of  or  the  full  width  of  the 
regular  measure ;  whether  it  is  to  be  set  broad  so 
as  to  read  the  long  way  of  the  page,  or  whether 
it  can  be  set  in  two  sections  to  extend  over  two  fac- 
ing pages.  All  these  conditions  must  be  known 
before  he  can  determine,  even  approximately,  the 
size  of  the  type  that  must  be  used. 

The  first  process  is  to  count  the  number  of  col- 
umns and  to  determine  the  width  of  each  column. 
When  the  columns  are  of  figures  only,  width  can 
be  quickly  ascertained,  for  figures  on  en-quadrat 
body  favor  precise  reckoning  ;  but  if  two  or  more 
columns  show  words,  the  calculation  will  be  more 
troublesome.  Select  the  column  that  is  apparently 
of  greatest  width,  and  let  the  longer  lines  in  that 
column  determine  its  width,  for  this  width  must 
control  that  of  other  columns.  It  often  happens 
that  the  words  in  the  different  lines  of  this  column 
are  of  variable  length— some  very  short,  some  very 
long— and  it  may  be  necessary  to  narrow  the  mea- 
sure by  abbreviating  words  or  by  the  use  of  smaller 
type,  as  has  been  advised  for  tables  of  simpler  form. 
Yet  there  are  long  lines  that  cannot  be  so  treated ; 
they  must  be  turned  over  to  occupy  two  or  more 
separate  lines.  This  will  compel  the  lengthening 
not  only  of  that  column  but  of  the  entire  table,  and 
the  insertion  of  lines  of  quadrats  in  the  parallel 
lines  of  its  side  columns. 

Much  discretion  will  be  required  in  narrowing  a 
column.  It  should  not  be  pinched  to  make  obscure 


196  Cross-headings  of  tables 

the  words  put  in  that  column  or  in  other  columns. 
Legibility  is  the  great  merit  of  a  table.  It  should 
be  as  readily  readable  as  the  matter  in  the  text  j  its 
words  or  figures  should  not  be  huddled  to  indis- 
tinctness, as  they  must  be  when  column  rules  are 
allowed  to  crowd  too  closely  against  the  words  or 
figures — a  common  practice,  sure  to  produce  con- 
fusion. Allowance  should  be  made  wherever  it  is 
possible  for  a  space  between  rule  and  figure. 

Before  a  column  rule  can  be  cut,  the  longest  col- 
umn of  type  should  be  set.  If  each  column  requires 
a  short  cross-heading  in  small  type,  this  cross-head- 
ing should  be  set  up,  with  a  proper  blank  on  each 
side  of  the  cross-rule,  and  a  similar  blank  at  the 
head  and  foot  of  the  full  column  where  it  will  be 
separated  from  the  text  by  the  broad  cross-rule  of 
the  full  width  of  the  measure.  If  this  column  is 
one  of  a  series  of  two  or  more  columns  in  the  same 
table  that  is  to  be  surmounted  by  a  broader  cross- 
heading,  a  similar  allowance  must  be  made  for  the 
space  that  will  be  occupied  by  the  words  of  that 
heading  and  its  cross-rule. 

Next,  compute  the  width  of  the  brass  rules  (in- 
cluding the  border  rule,  if  one  is  required)  that  will 
be  needed  to  separate  the  columns.1 

When  it  is  found  after  proper  calculation  that 
the  figures  and  words  of  a  table  cannot  be  got  in 

1  This  can  be  done  by  mental  8  points,  or  20  points  in  all,  and 

calculation:    six   2 -point    rules  this  will  narrow  the  space  for  the 

will  make  12  points  thick,  two  figures  or  words  of  the  table  by 

border  rules  of  4-point  will  make  20  points,  or  two  long-primers. 


Column  rules  and  borders  197 

the  prescribed  space  without  the  crowding  of  rules 
close  to  words  or  figures,  thereby  making  the  table 
hard  to  read,  two  alternatives  are  presented :  a 
smaller  type  must  be  used,  or  the  table  must  be 
enlarged,  so  that  it  can  be  read  the  long  way  of  the 
page  or  across  two  facing  pages.  Space  should  be 
preserved  on  each  side  of  the  column  rule  wherever 
it  is  possible.  More  than  any  other  characters  in 
the  font,  figures  need  space  for  legibility,  and  this 
space  is  also  needed  at  the  head  and  foot  of  every 
distinct  column.  A  table  is  unsightly  when  its  cross- 
rules  crowd  on  letters ;  it  suggests  neglected  calcu- 
lation. 

Every  column  rule  should  extend  from  the  broad- 
measure  cross-rule  at  the  top  of  the  table  to  the 
broad  cross-rule  at  its  foot,  if  one  is  used.  It  should 
go  between  column  headings  in  small  type.  It  is  a 
common  practice  but  it  is  not  good  workmanship 
to  use  a  broad-measure  cross-rule  below  the  column 
headings,  for  it  divides  the  table  in  two  sections. 

The  thick  double-rule  border  around  a  table  has 
been  supplanted  in  most  printing-houses  by  a  firm 
border  line  of  1 -point  face  on  a  4-point  body.  This 
1-point  face  should  be  flush  with  one  side  of  the 
rule,  so  that  a  perfect  joint  can  be  made  at  the  cor- 
ners of  a  table  without  mitring.  The  upright  col- 
umn rules  and  the  cross-rules  of  column  headings 
will  fairly  meet  the  border  rule  and  prevent  the 
unpleasing  gap  of  white  that  was  unavoidable  when 
the  face  of  the  border  rule  was  centred  on  its  body. 


198         Columns  made  up  to  even  ems 

Each  column  should  be  made  up,  when  it  can  be 
done,  to  even  ems  of  the  type  that  will  be  used  in 
the  table,  for  it  is  often  necessary  to  extend  the 
column  by  leading.  To  cut  short  leads  for  lead- 
ing out  figures  in  a  measure  of  two,  three,  or  four 
ems  is  always  a  risk.  The  leads  may  not  be  abso- 
lutely uniform  in  thickness ;  they  may  be  of  uneven 
thickness  by  more  or  less  use,  or  they  may  be  bent 
in  cutting,  or  be  cut  with  rough  edges.  The  en 
quadrats  or  three-to-em  spaces  of  the  type  selected 
for  figures  will  separate  lines  with  more  evenness 
than  cut  leads,  and  will  give  less  annoyance  to  the 
maker-up  and  electrotyper. 

Columns  made  up  of  irregular  widths  and  not 
to  even  ems  of  the  type  are  leaded  and  justified  with 
needless  trouble.  In  some  instances  thin  leads  or 
strips  of  paper  have  to  be  added  to  make  solid  work.1 

In  a  table  that  has  to  be  put  within  too  small 
space,  as  in  time-tables,  census  reports,  and  work  of 
like  nature,  the  crowding  of  column  rules  against 
figures  is  unavoidable,  but  in  the  occasional  tables 
of  good  book- work  pains  should  be  taken  to  prevent 
this  crowding.  The  words  and  figures  of  a  table 
should  have  at  least  as  much  distinctness  as  the 
roman  type  of  the  text. 

1  In  the  table  on  the  next  page  8-point  figures  with  fair  amount 

the  columns  of  figures  on  8-point  of  space  between  lines  and  rules 

body  are  each  of  three  ems  width,  are  more  readable  than  would 

and  the  first  column  is  of  ten  be  10-point  figures  that  had  to 

ems  width.  They  are  more  quick-  be  set  solid  and  crowded  close  up 

ly  and  securely  justified  with  en  to  the  column  rules.     It  is  the 

quadrats  than  with  leads.     The  white  space  that  gives  legibility. 


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200         Treatment  of  column  headings 

Complaint  is  often  made  that  the  time-tables  of 
railroads  are  hard  to  read  even  when  their  figures 
are  of  good  cut.  They  are  made  indistinct,  in  many 
instances,  by  the  selection  of  too  large  figures  that 
fill  the  body  with  a  needlessly  bold  and  black  face, 
and  that  crowd  against  each  other  and  the  side- 
rules.  Bold-faced  figures  need  space  for  their  dis- 
tinctness. The  selection  of  a  smaller  figure  that 
gives  a  sufficient  relief  of  white  between  the  lines 
will  make  the  table  more  readable. 

The  composition  of  column  headings  is  always 
troublesome.  In  some  headings  the  words  will  be 
short  and  in  others  very  long.  They  are  read  with 
most  facility  when  set  to  parallel  the  lines  of  the 
table.  To  do  this,  abbreviations  have  to  be  used 
occasionally,  but  this  treatment  is  always  a  mis- 
fortune. Very  small  type  is  the  preferred  alterna- 
tive, but  long  words  in  a  column  two  or  three  ems 
wide  and  parallel  to  lines  of  figures  are  sometimes 
impossible.  For  headings  of  this  nature  the  small 
type  must  be  set  in  a  wider  measure  to  greater 
length,  and  be  arranged  at  right  angles  with  the 
lines  of  figures.  The  length  of  the  measure  to  be 
used  must  be  that  of  the  heading  that  has  most 
words.  In  the  ordinary  table,  the  matter  so  set 
should  be  placed  over  the  column  to  read  up,  not 
down.  To  insure  exact  justification,  the  width  of 
column  headings  of  many  words  set  sidewise  should 
be  tested  in  a  stick  made  up  to  the  exact  width  of 
the  column. 


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202  Tables  on  facing  pages 

A  table  in  manuscript  with  columns  too  numerous 
for  its  fair  presentation  in  the  type  of  the  text  and 
in  its  regular  measure  may  have  to  be  set  in  a  type 
of  smaller  size.  This  is  an  unpleasant  alternative, 
but  if  the  small  type  has  to  be  used  to  get  all  the 
columns  in  the  measure,  the  lines  of  figures  will  be 
made  much  clearer  when  they  have  been  leaded  with 
three-to-em  spaces  or  en  quadrats.  If  figures  of 


A  useful  case  for  tables  of  figures. 

the  text  type  are  insisted  on,  the  table  can  be  set  to 
a  wider  measure  to  read  the  broad  way  of  the  page, 
or  it  can  be  made  up  in  two  sections  to  appear  on 
facing  pages.  It  may  be  that  the  first  column  of 
the  table,  which  explains  the  figures  in  each  column, 
will  have  to  be  repeated  on  the  second  page.  It  is 
better  to  do  this  than  to  bewilder  the  reader  with 
no  visible  connection  between  the  figures  and  then- 
explanatory  column,  or  to  give  unsightly  gaps  of 
space  between  columns. 


Tables  should  be  made  readable       203 

In  extreme  cases,  each  half  of  the  table  so  divided 
may  be  made  wider  than  the  regular  measure,  but 
each  page  must  be  carefully  made  up  so  that  the 
two  parts  will  be  on  exact  line  in  the  printed  and 
folded  sheet.  This  method  is  often  unavoidable, 
but  it  makes  extra  trouble  for  every  following  work- 
man, from  the  maker-up  to  the  bookbinder. 

Some  tables  are  of  great  length  and  have  to  be 
continued  on  many  pages,  but  the  general  heading 
and  the  special  cross-headings  of  each  column  must 
be  repeated  on  every  page. 

Tables  that  have  columns  of  unequal  length,  that 
are  sometimes  crossed  by  a  diagonal  rule,  and  have 
a  smaller  square  table  within  the  diagonal  blank  so 
created,  are  always  exceedingly  difficult.  To  insure 
proper  solidity,  great  care  must  be  given  to  justi- 
fication. 

Another  troublesome  variety  of  table  is  that  in 
which  column  rules  have  to  be  cut  in  two  or  more 
sections  to  admit  one  or  more  long  cross-lines  of 
explanatory  words.  By  the  old  method  the  column 
rules  were  not  cut,  and  single  types  had  to  be  filed 
down  or  spaced  out  to  make  them  fit  in  each  col- 
umn. The  work  could  not  be  neatly  done,  and  this 
tedious  and  clumsy  method  is  now  out  of  use. 

Needless  compactness  is  a  common  fault  in  the 
occasional  tables  of  a  book.  Figures,  rules,  and 
cross-headings  are  crowded  in  too  small  space,  and 
the  table  is  made  repelling  to  the  reader.  A  table 
of  6-point  figures  in  a  text  of  10-point  may  not  be 


204     Column  rules  should  meet  border  rule 

avoidable  when  the  table  must  be  on  the  same  page 
as  its  descriptive  text,  but  this  glaring  contrast  of 
sizes  can  be  made  less  offensive  by  leading  the  lines 
of  figures  and  by  giving  a  fair  relief  of  white  space 
to  cross-headings.  When  the  text  is  leaded,  the 
lines  of  figures  in  its  table  should  also  be  leaded 
wherever  it  is  possible.  As  the  figures  occupy  in 
their  height  about  two  thirds  of  the  body,  while 
most  lower-case  letters  occupy  less  than  one  half 
of  the  body,  there  is  more  need  of  space  between 
lines  of  figures  than  lines  of  letters. 

An  occasional  table  of  two  or  three  narrow  col- 
umns does  not  need  an  inclosing  brass-rule  border, 
when  this  border  is  made  bolder  than  the  figures 
within.  Books  of  tables  that  fill  the  page  are  now 
set  up  by  many  careful  printers  without  any  border. 
A  firm-faced  cross-rule  under  the  general  heading, 
without  rules  on  the  side  or  at  the  foot,  is  a  much 
more  common  method. 

The  type  used  for  column  headings  should  be  clear 
enough  in  plain  roman  lower-case  letter.  To  put 
a  heading  of  one  or  two  words  in  capitals  or  title- 
letter  over  the  broader  columns,  because  there  is 
plenty  of  space  for  the  words,  and  to  put  other  head- 
ings in  very  small  lower-case  letters  makes  a  dis- 
tinction of  display  that  is  not  needed  by  the  reader, 
nor  does  it  improve  the  typography. 

Column  rules  and  cross-rules  should  be  cut  so 
that  they  will  connect  with  the  inclosing  border 
rule.  Wood  reglet,  always  too  easily  compressed, 


Parallel  rules  to  differentiate  classes    205 

should  not  be  preferred  to  fill  blank  columns.  If 
wood  has  to  be  used,  the  head  and  foot  lines  of  the 
column  should  be  of  quadrats,  that  provide  a  more 
solid  resistance  to  compression  in  locking  up. 


OBSERVATION  DE  L'INCLINAISON  PAR  LA  METHODE  INDIRECTE. 

AY  AM  LE  RENVERSEMENT  DES   POLKS. 

APRES  LE  RENTER! 
Face  a  I'Esl.  19°  22' 

EMENT  DES  POLES. 
FacearOuesi,I90°22I 

Pace  a  ITist,  10°  20' 

Faceal'Ouest,I90°22' 

Pointe 
haute. 

Pointe 
basse. 

Pointe 
haute. 

Pointe 
basse. 

Pointe 
haute. 

Pointe 
baste. 

Pointe 
haute. 

Point* 
bassc. 

18°  23' 
18    28 
18     36 
18     32 
18    98 
18    48 

I8»  22' 
18     28 
18     35 
18     30 
18     27 
18    45 

18"  55' 
18    56 
18    32 
18     42 
18     55 
18    50 

18°  55' 
18     54 
18     36 
18    40 
18    52 
18    50 

19"   47' 
18     54 
19     40 
19     30 
19     II 
19       8 
19    36 
19    38 

19°  48' 
19     43 
19    38 
19    30 
19     II 
19      8 
19    34 
19    38 

19°     7' 
19     13 
19     15 
18     54 
19       0 
19     16 
19     19 
19     24 

19"      6' 
19     12 
19     14 
IK     53 
19       0 
19     14 
19     17 
19    03 

„      „ 

„      „ 

„      „ 

„      ,. 

18°  32- 

•""-  

I8«  31' 

«••! 

I9»  j 

18°  48' 

^—  ^^^^ 

l',0 

18°  46' 

.  "• 

19°  31' 



19°  31' 

•B^^"—  ~- 

18° 

19°   IT 

!!• 

J9,7 

18°   32' 

.  •" 

From  Lefevre's  Guide  Pratique. 

When  the  different  columns  of  a  table  are  arranged 
in  two  or  more  classes,  a  thin  parallel  rule  may  be 
used  to  show  more  clearly  the  distinction  between 
these  classes.  The  object  of  the  table  is  to  show 
figures  or  words,  and  not  to  show  the  rules.  An 
interior  rule  that  has  a  line  thicker  than  that  of 
the  words  or  figures  detracts  from  their  legibility. 
The  French  method  of  using  long  brass  braces  to 


206       Decimal  points  needed  in  tables 

connect  the  different  columns  of  the  subheadings 
shows  ingenious  composition,  but  the  braces  are 
not  of  benefit  to  the  reader.  The  plain  hair-line 
serves  a  better  purpose. 

The  error  made  by  selecting  figures  too  small  and 
rules  and  braces  too  large  is  evident  in  this  table. 
If  the  degree  mark  and  minute  mark  had  been  put 
over  their  respective  columns,  figures  two  sizes 
larger  could  have  been  selected.  If  hair-lines  had 
been  used  instead  of  braces  and  double  rule,  the 
table  would  have  been  much  more  readable. 

When  a  column  has  figures  that  require  a  point 
to  separate  dollars  from  cents  or  integers  from  their 
decimals,  the  period  on  the  en  body,  or  the  en  leader, 
should  be  preferred.  If  one  on  the  en  body  is  not 
to  be  had,  use  the  regular  period  of  the  font,  if  on 
the  four-to-em  body.  If  the  period  is  on  the  five- 
to-em  body,  justification  will  be  troublesome.  The 
practice  of  using  a  space  instead  of  a  period  to  sep- 
arate dollars  from  cents  is  not  to  be  commended. 
Cents  are  decimal  fractions  of  the  dollar,  and  the 
decimal  point  is  needed  in  every  statement  that  calls 
for  the  expression  of  a  decimal  fraction.  A  decimal 
expression  of  measurements  or  values  without  its 
point  is  unmeaning. 

It  is  a  misfortune  that  the  dollar  mark,  the  pound 
mark,  and  other  signs  occasionally  used  in  narrow 
columns  are  often  cast  on  bodies  not  easily  justi- 
fied. The  en  quadrat  or  the  three-to-em  space  is 
too  thick  and  the  four-to-em  space  is  too  thin.  All 


Knowledge  of  music  is  valuable        207 

the  sorts  needed  for  table-work  should  be  on  bodies 
that  favor  perfect  justification  in  the  narrowest 
column. 

Table-work  is  one  of  the  nicest  of  the  composi- 
tor's acquirements,  and  needs  careful  study  and 
training.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon 
the  necessity  of  accurate  casting  off  and  justifica- 
tion, for  which  exact  knowledge  of  the  proportions 
of  types  will  be  of  great  help.  An  imposed  table 
should  be  lifted  as  securely  as  a  page  of  text. 

MUSIC 

The  composition  of  music  types  requires  consid- 
erable skill  and  practice.  It  cannot  be  compared 
with  other  type  composition.  The  nearest  com- 
parison is  apparently  genealogical  work,  in  which 
columns  have  to  be  made  wider  or  narrower,  or 
table-work,  because  it  has  to  be  cast  off;  but  an 
expert  pedigree-maker  in  type,  or  an  expert  table- 
hand,  would  find  himself  puzzled  were  he  to  un- 
dertake the  composition  of  music  without  pre- 
vious knowledge,— to  set  it  up  "out  of  his  own 
head,"  as  it  were,— as  he  would  if  he  undertook 
a  difficult  problem  in  the  manipulation  of  letter- 
press. 

A  music  compositor  should  have  a  knowledge  of 
music,  in  order  to  give  the  proper  space  to  each  note 
on  account  of  its  value  in  time,  and  also  the  proper 
place  to  each  music  sign.  A  knowledge  of  music 


208         Breaks  in  lines  to  be  avoided 

would  seem  to  be  an  absolute  necessity.  Yet  it  is 
a  fact  that  some  proficient  music  compositors  have 
no  knowledge  of  music.  Intuition  governs  them. 
This  is  mentioned  to  show  that,  while  knowledge 
of  music  is  a  great  help  in  the  setting  of  music,  it 
is  not  absolutely  necessary.  It  is  no  more  aston- 
ishing than  the  fact  that  there  are  a  large  number 
of  letterpress  compositors  who  have  not  been  prop- 
erly taught  grammar,  and  yet  can  set  a  clean  proof 
from  manuscript  improperly  prepared. 

Music  type  is  cast  on  an  em  basis,  the  smallest 
piece  being  an  en.  The  lines  of  the  staff  are  an 
en,  an  em,  one  and  a  half,  two,  three,  four,  and  five 
ems,  when  cast  in  metal,  but  brass  lines  are  now 
supplied  in  any  length  required.  The  object  of 
having  long  lines  is  to  have  as  few  joinings  as 
possible,  thereby  reducing  to  a  minimum  unsightly 
breaks,  which  appear  when  the  edges  of  the  lines 
wear  away.  This  used  to  be  avoided  when  stereo- 
typing by  the  plaster  process  was  in  vogue.  A  brass 
rule  the  length  of  the  line  was  deftly  impressed  in 
each  line  of  the  staff  in  the  plaster  mould,  which 
gave  the  plate  an  unbroken  line  in  each  staff.  The 
music  published  by  London  (England)  firms  has 
often  been  admired  for  its  even  joins.  With  the 
advent  of  electrotyping  the  practice  seems  to  have 
fallen  into  disuse. 

In  music  composition  the  lines  should  be  crossed 
whenever  practicable,  to  avoid  the  appearance  of 
breaks  as  much  as  possible.  If  they  are  set  like 


Clef  the  key  to  the  tones  209 

this,  =  =i  ==  they  are  more  likely  to  show  the 

divi  -~  zn  =  sion  than  this  way  :  --  -- 
Set  your  lines  crosswise. 


fonts  of  music  have  two  lines  cast  on  one  body 
-  .  This  facilitates  the  work,  but  has  its  draw- 
back in  showing  open  spaces  when  worn,  besides 
which,  if  one  line  is  damaged,  the  other  is  of  no  use. 
The  lengths  of  the  lines  have  their  duplicates  in 
quadrats,  which  are  cast  on  a  single  and  a  double 
body.  Slugs  are  generally  used  for  over  five  ems. 

The  staff  is  composed  with  five  lines  and  four 
spaces,  made  by  the  shoulders  of  the  lines  ;  and  in 
order  to  tell  the  names  of  the  tones  which  the  notes 
represent  a  character  called  a  clef  is  placed  at  the 
beginning.  The  clef  determines  the  names  of  the 
tones  on  the  staff  to  which  it  is  affixed. 

There  are  three  clefs  in  music  ;  two  are  fixtures 
and  one  is  movable.  The  clefs  that  are  fixtures  are 
called  F  and  G,  and  the  movable  clef  is  called  C. 
Originally  the  staff  was  composed  of  eleven  lines. 
It  is  now  in  two  divisions  of  five  lines  each,  called 
the  bass  and  treble  staffs,  with  a  line  between, 
which  makes  up  the  complement  of  eleven  lines, 
and  this  line  is  called  C  : 

DEFGAB  CDEF 


-•-*- 


GAB  CDEFGABC 

The  C  clef  represents  either  soprano,  alto,  or  tenor. 


210  Names  of  clefs  on  the  staff 

The  top  clef  is  called  G,  which  gives  that  name  to 
the  second  line  from  the  bottom,  because  the  curl  of 
the  character  encircles  it,  and  the  rest  of  the  tones 
on  that  staff  have  their  names  fixed  accordingly. 

The  bottom  clef  (bass)  is  called  F,  which  gives 
that  name  to  the  fourth  line,  because  bounded  by 
the  two  dots,  and  which  also  determines  the  names 
of  the  other  tones  upon  that  staff.  These  two  clefs 
always  occupy  the  same  position,  but  the  position 
of  the  C  clef  varies  with  voice  or  instrument— tenor 
or  alto,  for  example.  It  is  generally  made  of  two 
bars  with  two  lines  on  each  side.  The  space  or 
line  between  the  bars  is  called  C,  which  also  deter- 
mines the  names  of  the  other  tones  on  that  staff. 


3. 


4. 


It  will  be  noticed  that  2,  3,  and  4  differ  in  their 
tones,  while  1  and  3  appear  to  be  the  same.     There 


Signature  and  time  of  notes          211 

is  an  octave  difference,  and  when  1  is  represented 
by  3  clef  it  should  be  played  or  sung  an  octave 
higher.     The  F  and  G  clefs  are  cast  in  one  piece, 
but  the  C  clef  is  of  different  pieces:  _IH«I-I_  ,,,, 
In  some  fonts  the  double  bars  on  each  I]  ~\  •  \.  ^L  -j^j— 
side  are  cast  in  one  piece  on  a  two-line 
body  fl  .     This  would  require  only  half  the  num- 
ber of  pieces  fl  -  tt  . 

The  key  to  fl  •  £  the  music  is  called  the  signature, 
which  is  composed  of  either  sharps  or  flats,  and  is 
placed  next  to  the  clef.  The  signature  indicates 
that  notes  upon  the  line  or  space  of  the  sharp  or 
flat  shall  be  performed  sharp  or  flat  accordingly, 
unless  the  order  is  countermanded  by  a  natural  t3 : 


Three  sharps  after  the  clef  take  up  three  ems  space, 
while  three  flats  take  up  only  two  and  a  half  ems, 
an  en  only  being  required  between  B  and  A  flat, 
each  two  lines  deep,  but  a  line  sharp  is  three  lines 
deep,  sometimes  on  a  two-em  kerned  body. 

Next  to  the  signature  comes  the  time-mark.  The 
JQ  is  two  ems  long  and  three  lines  deep.  The  fig- 
ures are  two  ems  long  on  a  single  body,  with  a 
line  through  them :  —  _ 

The  notes  have  -t  -2-  -3-  4-  -6-  -8-  J  two 
functions  —  sound  and 

time.  The  note  occupying  the  longest  time  (used 


212  Time  values  of  notes 

mostly  in  recitative)  is  called  a  breve : 
This  is  made  up  of  separate  pieces.    A  ~ 


space  note  occupies  two  lines  and  takes  eight  pieces, 
and  a  line  note  occupies  three  lines  and  takes  thir- 
teen pieces,  except  as  shown  in  preceding  page  : 


The  note  next  in  duration  of  time  is  called  a  semi- 
breve  :  i  I  being  half  the  value  in  time  of  the 
breve,  a  as  its  name  denotes.  This  note  is  the 
foundation  upon  which  time  is  based,  and  is  called 
a  whole  note.  The  note  next  in  order  is  called  a 
minim,  or  half  note,  two  of  which  are  of  the  same 
value  in  time  as  the  semibreve.  This  note,  like  its 
predecessor,  is  white,  with  the  addition  of  a  stem. 
The  notes  following  are  black.  Below  are  given 
the  time  values  of  the  notes,  those  of  greatest  value 
being  placed  on  the  under  or  bass  staff  : 


m 


-V- 


Each  additional  tail  decreases  the  value  of  the  note 
one  half.  Allowance  will  have  to  be  made  when 
casting  off  a  brace.  A  brace  is  more  than  one  line 
played  or  sung  in  unison.  A  dot  added  to  a  note 


Difference  in  B  and  D  noteheads       213 

increases  its  time  value  one  half,  and  a  second 
dot  is  half  the  value  in  time  of  the  preceding  dot : 


With  the  exception  of  the  semibreve  (or  whole 
note),  the  notes  are  composed  of  different  pieces— 
heads,  stems,  tails  (sometimes  called  hooks),  and 
ties.  The  noteheads  occupy  one  line,  the  space 
notehead  being  kerned  and  resting  on  the  shoulder 
of  the  line  next  to  it,  except  a  unison  notehead  in 
the  space,  a  connecting  notehead  in  the  space,  and 
a  B  and  D  notehead  in  the  space,  which  are  gener- 
ally cast  on  a  double  body.  The  B  notehead  is  the 
note  in  the  first  space  outside  the  staff,  with  the 
stem  outside  the  staff.  Its  name  distinguishes  it, 
and  its  position  gives  the  name  to  its  tone.  The 
notes  outside  the  staff  are  called  leger  notes,  and  are 
distinguished  by  a  thicker  line  in  some  fonts.  An 
en  line  extends  beyond  the  note  each  way.  Note- 
heads  in  the  space,  on  a  two-em  body  without  the  top 
line,  are  called  D  noteheads.  Note  the  difference : 


n    I        D  note-  r       -0- 

B  note-   kead. 

Leger  notes. 


214  Tying  and  binding  of  notes 

The  stems  of  the  notes  are  on  single  and  double 
bodies,  sometimes  three  bodies  deep.  The  single- 
body  stems  are  called  angles  or  T  pieces,  and  are 
en,  em,  one  and  a  half  ems,  two  ems,  and  longer. 
The  double-body  stems  begin  at  an  em  and  proceed 
the  same  as  the  single  body.  They  take  different 
forms  for  use  inside  and  outside  the  staff,  and  are 
manipulated  in  quite  a  number  of  different  ways : 

Full.          Cut.  Full.         Cut. 

Angle:  H          -.          -*  Double  body:  ij          I]         J 

Full.         Cut.  Full.      Cut.     Full. 

B  steins:  _|          _j          J  Plain  stems:     |  ( 

HOW  A  NOTE    IS   MADE 
Space.  Line.  Together.          Space.    Line. 

*'    ;==     -I 


A  line  notehead  stem  is  longer  than  a  space  note- 
head  stem.  The  space  notehead  has  part  of  the 
stem  attached,  and  this  equalizes  the  length. 

When  notes  are  grouped  they  are  either  tied  or 
bound  by  a  curve.  The  ties  are  both  straight  and 
slanting,  and  are  joined  to  the  stems  of  the  notes. 
The  bind  is  to  prevent  accent,  and  this  is  accom- 
plished by  making  a  sustained  passage  begin  with 
an  unaccented  note  and  finish  on  an  accented  one, 


Accent  and  syncopation  215 

which  prevents  or  destroys  the  accent.  This  is  called 
syncopation.  Accent,  if  not  the  most  important,  is 
one  of  the  most  important  features  in  music.  Good 
rendition  cannot  take  place  without  its  being  ob- 
served. It  is  equally  important  with  time.  It  is 
as  important  as  punctuation  in  reading-matter  or 
inflection  in  oratory.  Take  a  passage  in  common 
time,  the  accent  being  on  the  first  and  third  beats : 

No 
Accent.      Accent.        accent.          Accent.        Accent.        Accent. 


Bind. 

Ties  range  one  em,  one  and  a  half,  two,  three  ems, 
are  cast  for  line  and  space  notes,  the  line  notehead 
ties  being  kerned  or  overhanging,  and  join  each 
other  in  diagonal  line  when  up  or  down.  They 
are  up,  down,  and  straight,  inside  and  outside  the 
staff,  and  combinations  can  be  made  in  a  number  of 
ways,  depending  upon  the  skill  of  the  compositor : 

Apart.  Together.  Apart.  Together. 

1  ;  i  •  5EJ=iE«E  *  «  * 

When  notes  ascend  or  descend  in  thirds  or  more, 
double  slants  are  used,  the  slope  being  more  acute. 
When  not  provided,  they  can  be  made  by  using  two 
1£  slants,  if  the  space  and  note  occupy  three  ems : 

Apart.  Together. 


r?  : 


216         Casting  off  music  composition 

Together. 


9 

By  the  use  of  slurs,  notes  glide  into  each  other. 
They  are  cast  in  two,  three,  four,  and  six  ems,  and 
can  be  made  longer,  when  required,  by  using  com- 
bination pieces.  When  slurs  longer  than  those 
furnished  are  required,  the  end  of  a  bind  is  used, 
middle  pieces  being  added  to  make  it  of  the  required 
length,  the  last  one  being  tapered  for  the  purpose : 

Up  slur.  Down  slur. 

Binds  are  sometimes  called  ties  and  straight  slurs. 
The  word  bind  is  used  because  they  do  not  touch 
the  notes ;  the  ties  touch  the  notes.  They  can  be 
made  to  extend  any  length  and  are  in  one  piece 
up  to  six  ems — two,  three,  four,  and  six  ems.  End 
pieces  are  two  and  four  ems  long,  the  middle 
pieces  ranging  en,  one,  two,  three,  four  ems.  Like 
other  sorts,  they  are  cast  with  the  line  and  without : 

Music  composition  cannot  be  set  at  random,  like 
type  composition.  It  has  to  be  cast  off  before  it 
can  be  constructed,  the  work  of  which,  in  difficult 
parts,  gives  the  compositor  an  opportunity  to  dem- 
onstrate his  ability  or  show  his  lack  of  it. 


Hoiv  casting  off  can  be  done          217 

The  preceding  illustration  shows  a  line  of  music 
copy  that  ends  at  the  last  bar  but  one.  Music  is 
cast  off  by  ems  of  its  own  body.  The  first  thing 
to  ascertain,  on  taking  copy,  is  the  length  of  the 
line  in  music  ems.  The  foregoing  line  consists  of 
forty-five  ems  of  music.  In  order  to  find  how  to 
make  it  come  out  even,  and  at  the  same  time  to  be 
correctly  spaced,  find  out  how  much  space  your 
noteheads,  signature,  time-mark,  and  clef  will  take 
up,  and  then  properly  distribute  the  rest  of  the  space. 
In  casting  off,  give  most  space  to  the  notes  of  long 
duration  and  economize  on  the  ones  that  are  tied. 
For  example,  more  space  should  be  placed  after  a 
half  note  than  a  fourth,  etc.  In  the  preceding  line 
the  clef  is  three  ems,  signature  two  ems,  time-mark 
two  ems,  and  ten  noteheads  of  one  em  each.  Thus : 
This  accounts  for  thirty-  Ems 

five,  leaving  ten  ems  to  be      C)ef  ? 
distributed.    One  em  put       Signature, 
beforethetime-mark,two       Time-mark, 

Ten  noteheads,  > 
after  it,  an  em  extra  in         Qne  em  each   £ 


front  of  bars,  and  three 

ems  after  the  last  note,  -^ 

.     ,    , .  Nine  spaces  between  ) 

including  the   end   bar,         ^  noteheads>  18 

will  make  up  the  required         two  ems  eacb>         *) 
number— forty-five  ems. 

np- 

When  possible,  have  the 

most  space  in  front  of  the  bar.  Another  way  to 
cast  off  is  to  set  a  guide-line  of  noteheads,  making 
the  spaces  between  with  lines  or  quads.  This  is 


218  Eests  and  grace-notes 

easier  than  mental  calculation  and  is  done  as  fol- 
lows, the  noteheads  being  at  the  top  of  the  staff : 


3    2   1   2  2   12111112111112111112111112121 

Brass  rule  is  sometimes  used  for  bars,  as  seen  in 
five  previous  examples.  Bars  can  be  ordered  from 
the  type-founder  or  made  in  the  office.  Equiv- 
alent spaces  have  to  be  used  to  justify  when  the 
bar  is  not  length  of  line  or  brace.  They  are  made 
of  various  lengths,  and  should  go  the  depth  of  the 
line  or  brace. 

The  rests  are  in  one  piece  and  are  cast  without 
and  with  the  lines  of  the  staff.  The  bar  or  whole- 
note  rest  is  a  straight  black  line,  and  is  used  down- 
ward on  the  top  line  but  one.  It  is  also  used  for 
the  half-note  rest,  and  is  then  turned  upward  and 
rests  on  the  third  line  of  the  staff.  The  rests  are : 

Bar  or  Half  Quarter  8th  16th  32d 

Whole  rest.         rest.  rest.  rest.  rest.  rest. 


I a I 

^^     rfc 


Grace-notes  have  a  smaller  face,  are  duplicates  of 
the  other  notes,  and  are  manipulated  in  the  same 
way,  many  of  the  sorts,  such  as  accidentals,  etc., 
being  on  an  en  body. 

Where  terms  are  expressed  in  words  they  can  be 
set  in  any  type  and  justified.  When  expressed  by 
characters  they  will  be  found  cast  with  the  font. 


Cases  for  music  composition  219 

The  following  plans  of  cases  provide  for  all  the 
sorts  that  are  necessary  for  general  use.  A  side 
box  for  double  quads  will  be  necessary,  and  also  a 
rule  case  if  brass  lines  longer  than  five  ems  are 
used.  Music  fonts  vary,  and  the  lay  of  the  case 
has  to  vary  with  them,  but  the  accompanying  plans 
will  be  found  to  meet  all  needs,  so  that  the  encum- 
brance of  a  third  or  side  case  is  obviated.  The  va- 
cant boxes  can  be  utilized  as  occasion  requires.  An 
extra  case  can  be  used  for  the  overflow  or  surplus 
sorts.  All  the  characters  treated  are  in  all  fonts 
cast  by  American  type-founders.  Different  plans 
of  music  cases  can  be  had.  The  cases  here  shown 
can  be  had  through  any  type-foundry,  but  special 
care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  the  ones  here  illus- 
trated. An  ordinary  lower  case  and  a  triple  upper 
case  can  be  arranged  for  the  purpose.  Fonts  vary 
as  regards  number  of  characters.  Cases  also  vary 
in  the  way  they  are  laid,  each  compositor  having 
his  own  method.  The  accompanying  plans  are 
made  to  facilitate  composition  —  noteheads,  stems, 
ties,  binds,  slurs,  lines,  etc.,  being  grouped.  The 
aim  of  the  writer  has  been  to  simplify  the  instruc- 
tions needed.  If  these  instructions  are  studied  and 
thoroughly  understood,  the  minor  difficulties  that 
appear  in  practice  can  be  readily  overcome  by  a 
compositor  of  ordinary  ability. 

Gregorian  music,  so  named  after  its  founder,  St. 
Gregory,  and  used  for  chanting,  is  composed  of 
one  staff  of  four  lines.  It  hardly  comes  within  the 


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224     Gregorian  music     Tonic  sol-fa  music 

category  of  music  composition  as  generally  under- 
stood, having  none  of  the  difficulties  of  building  or 
ranging  that  are  encountered  in  the  old  notation. 
The  compositor  sets  up  the  line  of  words  first  and 
ranges  the  notes  over  them.  No  casting  off  is  re- 
quired. It  is  comparatively  straight  matter.  Pre- 
vious knowledge  is  not  necessary,  and  any  average 
compositor  can  set  it.  The  noteheads  are  diamond 
and  square  shaped,  and  the  ordinary  music  stems 
are  used. 

In  tonic  sol-fa  music  no  staff  is  used,  letters 
taking  the  place  of  notes.  Each  part  occupies  a 
line,  the  pulses  or  beats  being  divided  by  colons, 
and  the  subdivisions  by  periods  and  commas,  except 
where  the  accent  occurs,  when  an  inverted  one  em 
dash  is  used.  When  more  than  one  part  is  engaged, 
the  beats  have  to  range.  Brass  rule  the  depth  of 
the  vocal  parts  is  used  for  bars.  Thus,  do,  re,  mi, 
do,  in  common  time,  would  be  d  |  :  r  |  m :  d '  |  . 
The  inferior  stroke  at  the  first  d  signifies  an  octave 
lower,  and  the  superior  stroke  at  the  last  d  an  oc- 
tave higher.  Music  character  expressions  are  used. 
It  is  intended  only  for  the  voice,  the  instrumental 
accompaniment  having  to  be  set  in  the  old  nota- 
tion. The  characters  are  on  en  and  em  bodies. 
Having  no  staff,  the  difficulties  of  building  have 
not  to  be  contended  with,  making  the  casting  off 
comparatively  easy,  and  the  composition  virtually 
straight  matter,  like  setting  a  line  of  figures  across 
a  table,  through  which  may  be  inserted  the  column 


Genealogies  and  pedigrees  225 

rules.  It  can  be  done  by  one  who  can  set  a  table.  The 
following  is  an  illustration  and  will  speak  for  itself : 


s     :  fe  I  1  :  s 

ll.Gen  -  tly,  gen  -    tly 

|2.  Mirth    and  mu  -    sic 

n    :  re  |  f  :  n 

d    :  d  |  d  :d 


s.d'rr'.d'ld'    :  t 

morning  light  is  break  -  ing, 
like  a  fountain  flow  -    ing, 

m.n  : f .m  |  m    :  r 

d.d  :d.d  Is,    :  S| 


Diamond  and  excelsior  music  type  are  best  suited 
for  book- work.  Excelsior  occupies  the  least  space. 
Diamond  has  three  sizes  of  noteheads,  Nos.  1,  2, 
and  3.  Other  fonts  are  also  supplied  with  dif- 
ferent sizes  of  noteheads. 

GENEALOGIES  AND  PEDIGREES 

The  intent  of  the  genealogical  chart  is  a  synopsis 
of  descent  and  of  mutual  relationship  that  will  be 
understandable  at  a  glance.  The  lines  that  show 
connection  with  near  or  remote  ancestry  should  be 
plain  hair-line  brass  rules;  if,  now  and  then,  a 
brace  may  be  needed,  it  should  be  of  light  face. 
The  words  are  of  most  importance,  and  should  not 
be  made  insignificant  by  blackness  of  braces.  To 
present  each  member  of  the  family  in  column  form, 
and  to  preserve  a  proper  parallelism  of  columns, 
these  columns  must  be  of  unequal  width,  some  very 
narrow  and  some  very  broad;  one  may  have  but 
three  or  four  words,  and  another  may  have  fifteen 

15 


PEDIGREE    OF    THE 


Jataka  (lost). 
Pali  about  250  B.C. 

—  -^-                  mf^rt 

KARATA 

Cingalese  (lost). 
| 

Pehlevi,  or  Old  Pers. 

Pali,  550  A.D. 
Jataka  Atthavannana. 

by  Barzoye  (lost),   ' 

5/0  A.  D.                             < 

ed.  Fausboll, 

1 

1877-79- 

1   /' 

4  Cingalese, 
1320,  1415, 

Eng.  pt. 
(Fausball.               v. 

^SyriacJ 

^ 
£570^        ^ARABIC  I.  c.  750, 

1610,  1780. 

Eng.,  verse 
pt.  Steele 

1871; 
Rhys-Davids, 
1880; 
R.  Morris, 

ed.  Bicke 
Germ 

1,  1874-    '    (ed  Pt.,  Scahuatens°i786! 
NSldeke,  1  879,  the  whole 
an                byS.deSacy,  i8i6,and 

(1871). 

1885-87). 

ickell, 

KaUlaehwa:Dm^ah2)> 

Heb.  pt, 

. 

1878. 

Fr.  D 

Pers.  verse,         2  Arab,  verse  (lost) 
by  Rudegi,  9,4     (,)  Jachja  ibn  laffar, 
(lost).                 the  Barmecide  ; 

(2  edns,  i 

(2) 

Abd  al-Mamun. 

.  

Pets.  (MS.) 

| 

Hindustani, 

1803. 

Syriac  II.  (loth  cent.)                 (Sreeft  I. 

(ed.  Wright,  1884).              by  S.  Seth,  1080 

Ethiopic         pets! 
(lost).          by  Kai 

an  I.      Malay      t 
rullah,    (MS.)      b 

Eng.  (Keith-Fal-          fe^lSk*  3&3ft 

>s                             ii2i  (MS.) 

coner,  1885).             1851,  Proleg.  ed.  Aurivallius,                      Pers  II     iSoo- 
1780,  Puntoni,  1884).                            Anwari  Subaili 

(4  eds.  i8oi-i8<;i). 

Latin 
(Possinus,  1666, 
Stark,  1697). 

Italian,           Old  S 
Del  governo     (ed.  Bi 
de  regni               18 

avonic 
Igaroff, 
77)- 

I 
Croat 
(ed.  1870). 

French,  i( 
(Derenboui 

„  1 

(3eds.,  1583- 

Germ. 

1872). 

(Lehmus,  1778). 

"O  ~_~     T  1 

T      _  -O_              T-k-1    t-  _•           r, 

1 

-  ---  •  ----  -jw/>  *^«*«.*»n«,  i.u,£q,,       I-  jcuuii.   lugo.  pi. 

byAb-ulFadl,  (M.  Ibraheem).       David  Sahid, 

^StSf1*  Fables  de  PilP*y- 

(M.s-)  (5  edns). 


Wollaston,  1877'. 


I 

Gerr 

Buchd 
(21  edns 

Dutch  I., 

Dutch  II. 
1716. 

Urdu,  1815 
(ed.  Roebuck). 

Eng.,  1861 
(  P.  P.  Manuel). 

Turkish,  c.  1500, 
Humayun  Namah 

1836). 

sA, 

Wilde, 

Eng.,  1699 
(J.  Harris,  9  edns.), 

2  Germ.  , 
1802,  1803. 

3zech,  1846 
Trebowsky). 

Fr.,  1724,  pt.,  by  Galland  and  Cardonne 
Contes  de  Bidpai  (3  edns.) 

Span. 

,  1654-58,  by  V.  Bratut 
Espejo  politico. 

1 

,  1 

1 

| 

1 

.783. 


1762.        Hungarian,  1783.         Polish,  1819.         Dutch. 


BIDPAI     LITERATURE. 


BIT  I.,  abt.  300  A.D. 
and  DAMANAKA  (lost). 


1                      1 

rab.  II  ?                       Tibetan,  pt.,                      Sanskt. 
i  Jew,  750.              ed.  Schiefner,  1875.                  Pancht 
luidi,  1873.                              1                             (2  edns.,  i 

II.,  pt.,             Chinese,  pt  , 
itantra,                Avadanas. 
848,  1868).                    | 
French,  1859 
(Julien). 

pt'(Guidi).           GeL 
(Schiefner). 

1 
Latin 
(Schiefner) 

Eng.  1 
(Ralsto 


ston). 


"elugu,  Tamil, 

1.  1848.          by  Somasamna 
(2  edns.  1826-28). 

I  1  Sansk.  Hitopadesa         Sansk.  Katha-sarit-sagara, 

Malay  Eng.  1873        (n  edns.,  1804-68).          by  Somadeva  (i2th  cent.). 

7«)      (Alkabir,      (E.  Winford). 


2  Germ.  Fr.  Greek, 

(Beufey,  1859,      (Lancereau,     t(Galanos, 

Fritze,  1884).  1871)-  1851). 


1871). 

Germ.,  pt.                      Eng. 
(Brockhaus,  1853).      (Tawney,  1881). 

alee       Mahratta         Brij        Hindi.pt.,     4  Germ 
ns.,        (2  edns.,        Barha           1851.          1844-74 
-24).        1805-15).       (2  ed., 
1809-12). 

2Fr. 

5Eng.-(Wilkins,  1797,  1885; 
SirW.  Jones,  1799  ;  Johnson, 
1848  ;  M.  Muller,  1864  ;  Sir 
E.  Arnold,  1861). 

Greek. 

185.. 

XW  I.          Hebrew  II.          Span.  I.,  1252,      Latin 
Joel,      by  R.  Eleasar      Calyla  i  Dymna    verse, 
250.         b.  Jacob,  1283.       (ed.  Gayangos,     Baldo, 

1 

Knatchbuli, 
1818). 

I                       | 
Fr.  pt.,            2  Germ 
(Pihan,     (Holmboe,  1832, 
1866).          Wolff,  1837, 
2  eds.) 

Armenian, 
pt., 
I3th  cent. 
Vartan. 

Fr.  1676. 

ed.  Derenbourg,                            |                  alter 
1881.                        Latin,  c.  1300.      (MS) 
Raymond  (MS.) 

LATIN  I.,  by  John  of    «*•  P'-  E-  du  M6ril, 
Capua,  1270.                              1854- 
Directorium  vite  humane 
ed.  1483;  Puntoni,  1884; 
Derenbourg,  1887). 

•483, 

eyapiele 

83-1860). 

2  Danish 
(1618.) 

I                                                1 
^               Spanish  II.,                          Czech,  c    1450, 

^-             Exemplario                           by  N.  Conac, 
(10  edns.  fi.  1493).          Prawidlo  lidskoho  ziwota 

Ital.  I.,  1548,  by  Firenzuola,    —  ».          Ital.  II.,  1552,  by  Doni, 
Discoru  (3  edns,)                    La  Moral  Fhilosophia  (3  edns.  ) 

French,  1556                         Fr.,  1577.                English  I.,  1570,  by  T.  NORTH, 
(Cottier).                        (De  la  Rivey,              The  Morall  Philosophic  of  Doni 
2  edns.)                         (3  edns.,  1570,  1601,  1888). 

228  Illustrations  of  genealogies 

or  more.  Unlike  all  other  forms  of  type-setting,  the 
building  of  a  long  genealogical  chart  cannot  begin 
at  the  beginning  of  the  manuscript.  It  must  begin 
with  the  columns  that  occupy  greatest  width,  which 
are  usually  at  or  near  the  foot  of  the  chart.  Each 
column  should  be  separately  set,  accurately  justi- 
fied, and  kept  dampened  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
handled,  for  interlockings  and  rearrangements  are 
unavoidable.  The  process  of  building  up  separate 
rows  of  matter  for  different  generations  has  to  be 
done  in  reverse  order,  the  matter  first  written 
being  the  last  set.  For  obvious  reasons,  the  gene- 
alogy of  a  family  is  not  offered  as  an  illustration, 
but  the  Pedigree  of  the  Bidpai  Literature,1  which  is 
a  story  of  the  origin  and  descent  of  a  famous  book, 
fairly  shows  the  method  used  in  the  composition 
of  the  genealogies  of  families.  It  may  be  added 
that  no  form  of  typographic  composition  is  more 

1  From  Joseph  Jacobs's  Earliest  fled  within  a  border  printed  in 

English  Version  of  the  Fables  of  blue  ink,  but  the  braces  that 

Bidpai,  post  8vo,  London,  1888.  show  connection  are  in  red  ink. 

A  more  carefully  elaborated  The  chart  is  inclosed  in  a  border 

genealogical  chart  is  that  of  the  of  fifty-eight  heraldic   shields, 

Estienne   (Stephens)  family   of  each  one  presenting  the  peculiar 

Paris,  as  it  is  presented  in  the  device  of  a  different  member  of 

Essai  sur  la  Typographic,  by  M.  the  family. 

Ambroise    Firmin  -  Didot,    8vo,  A  simpler  form  of  chart  can 

Paris,  1851,  which  begins  with  be  seen  in  Les  Elzevier,  by  Al- 

Pierre  Estienne    (1270),  and    is  phonse  Willems.  8vo,  Brussels, 

continued  through  sixteen  gen-  1880.     It  is  for  five  generations 

erations.     Yet  it  is  compacted  only  of  that  family,  and  is  printed 

upon  a  sheet  13  x  l?1^  inches,  in  red  and  black,  on  a  long  sheet 

The  composition   is  apparently  9Vfc  x  20^j  inches.   All  are  admi- 

in  type  on  4^-point  body.   Each  rable  as  illustrations  of  difficult 

member  of  the  family  is  speci-  composition. 


Pedigrees  of  domestic  animals        229 

troublesome  or  more  expensive  than  that  of  the 
genealogical  chart. 

The  genealogical  chart  in  manuscript  that  has  to 
be  kept  within  a  prescribed  limit  cannot  be  properly 
set  if  the  copy  has  not  been  prepared  in  an  orderly 
manner.  If  a  distinct  column  has  not  been  made 
for  each  member  of  the  family,  and  the  relation  of 
different  members  to  their  co-relatives  and  to  the 
common  ancestor  is  not  clearly  denned,  it  will  be  a 
waste  of  time  to  try  to  put  in  type  copy  so  negli- 
gently prepared.  The  matter  should  be  rewritten, 
and  it  may  be  prudent  to  rewrite  it  more  than  once 
before  the  mutual  relation  of  the  different  mem- 
bers of  that  family  can  be  fairly  presented. 

In  genealogical  charts  the  name  of  the  ancestor 
is  at  the  head  of  the  page,  and  the  descendants  are 
set  below  in  rows  that  are  nearly  parallel.  In  the 
pedigrees  of  animals  the  name  of  the  progenitor 

Pedro  of  Terrace  Hill  39514.     (See  Lot  15.) 

•Bellman  6968 

\  Grinell  Lass  11859 
Bellman's  Dolly  -     (16.10) 

77601  f  Duke  of  Onaquaga 

2840 
Dolly  Crary  13117  ...  1 

I  Christine  3006 

and  the  names  of  his  descendants  usually  are  com- 
posed in  separate  columns  with  proper  separating 
blanks,  after  the  fashion  customary  in  some  tables 
of  figures,  detachable  braces  being  substituted  for 
plain  column  rules.  The  column  that  contains  the 
last  generation  at  the  end  of  the  measure  is  often 


BELL 

MADESSA 

157294 


Bellman's  Boy  14003 . 


230        The  proper  field  of  typography 

very  compact  j  the  name  of  the  progenitor  at  the 
left  in  the  first  column  is  open,  with  a  broad  blank 
above  and  below.  This  method  of  treating  a  pedi- 
gree is  sufficient  for  three  or  four  generations,  but 
it  is  not  so  practicable  on  the  ordinary  page  when 
the  columns  are  continued  at  great  length. 

Some  text-books  of  chemistry  make  use  of  this 
method  of  composition  to  illustrate  the  compounds 
and  subcompounds  of  elementary  substances.  It 
is  also  used  in  botany  to  show  the  classification  of 
species  derived  from  a  common  stock.  The  method 
makes  the  subject-matter  much  more  intelligible. 

Some  of  the  older  forms  of  troublesome  composi- 
tion have  been  discarded :  the  chronogram,  in  which 
dates  were  suggested  by  roman  capital  letters  arbi- 
trarily arranged  as  numerals ;  acrostics  with  initial 
letters  turned  sidewise;  literal  or  verbal  puzzles 
produced  by  signs ;  diagrams  toilsomely  constructed 
from  brass  rules  ingeniously  curved  and  twisted ; 
facs,  head-bands,  and  initials  of  combination  bor- 
ders or  capital  letters;  stigmatypes  of  portraits 
made  from  periods  of  different  size.  Prints  from 
these  compositions  suggest  skill  and  patience,  but 
the  general  effect  is  not  pleasing.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  try  to  do  by  typography  anything  that  can  be 
done  more  neatly  and  quickly  by  photo-engraving. 
Composition  should  exemplify  its  etymology,  not 
by  the  construction  but  by  the  combining  of  its 
materials. 


SAMUEL    NELSON 


VI 


FOREIGN   LANGUAGES 


Accents  .  .  .  Greek  .  .  .  Hebrew  .  „  .  German 


OREIGN  languages  will  be  set 
with  most  correctness  by  the 
compositor  who  clearly  under- 
stands the  meaning  of  his  copy, 
but  a  knowledge  of  more  than 
one  language  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected of  the  ordinary  type- 
setter. Reprint  or  clear  manuscript  copy  in  Latin, 
French,  Spanish,  Italian,  or  in  any  other  language 
that  uses  the  roman  character,  can  be  decently  ren- 
dered in  type  by  a  careful  compositor,  but  the  diffi- 
culty of  preserving  accuracy  increases  when  the 
copy  is  in  Greek,  Hebrew,  or  German,  for  each  one 
of  these  languages  has  its  own  peculiar  alphabet. 

231 


232       Accented  letters  for  roman  types 

Yet  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  German  characters  must  be 
provided  for  the  proper  rendering  of  quoted  words 
or  lines  in  every  printing-house  that  undertakes 
to  do  miscellaneous  book-work. 

The  characters  required  for  the  languages  that 
have  distinct  alphabets  are  seldom  found  in  the 
ordinary  book-house.  To  employ  them  acceptably, 
fonts  of  many  faces  and  sizes  must  be  provided, 
and  they  should  be  handled  by  compositors  and 
supervised  by  readers  who  have  at  least  some 
superficial  acquaintance  with  the  languages.1 

ACCENTS 

One  peculiarity  of  printed  English  language  is  the 
absence  of  accented  letters  in  an  ordinary  descrip- 
tive text.  It  is  only  in  dictionaries  or  elocutionary 

aaaaaaaaaaaaae'eeeeeeeeeiiiiii  166606 

5ooooOiiiiTluuuuuuuyyyyyy9cdnnnstzT 

Century  Dictionary  accents. 

treatises  that  accents  are  freely  used  to  guide  pro- 
nunciation. English-speaking  compositors  are  apt 

1  There  are  but  few  printing-  many.    In  all  large  cities  may 

houses   of   polyglot   capability,  be  found  occasionally  printing- 

Those  that  have  justly  earned  a  houses  that  have  one  or  more 

world-wide   reputation   are  the  fonts  of  Arabic,  Turkish,  Syriac, 

University    Press    of    Oxford,  Coptic,  Russian,   Sanskrit,   and 

England,  the  National  Printing  other   Oriental    languages,   but 

House  of  Paris,  De  Propaganda  they  are  used  infrequently,  and 

Fide    of    Rome,    the    Imperial  the  ordinary  book-printer  has  to 

Printing  House  of  Vienna,  and  decline   the  purchase  of   types 

W.  Drugulin    of   Leipsic,  Ger-  that  will  be  rarely  used. 


Accented  letters  for  foreign  languages     233 

to  underrate  the  importance  of  a  proper  placing  of 
accents  in  the  composition  of  foreign  languages, 
where  the  same  word  with  or  without  an  accent 
may  convey  a  different  meaning.  American  type- 
founders provide  and  furnish,  but  only  on  special 
request,  these  accents 1  for  roman  letter : 

Bohemian :   ACDEEINORSTUUYZ 

acd'eeinofsfuuyz 
Danish  and  Norwegian :  0    0 
Flemish :  E  E  E  e  e  e  6 

French:  A AfiEEElOUUgaaeeeeiiduuuQ 
German :  A  O  U  a  o  ii 

Hungarian  :AEl6o6uUUaei666uuu 
Italian:  AEIOUaeiou 
Polish:  4CE£LOSZZ^ce<;16sz 
Portuguese :  AAEl6OUUNQaaei66uiin<? 
Spanish  :Afit6UUNaei6uuii 
Swedish :  A  A  O  a  a  o 
Welsh :  W  ^  and  the  ordinary  accents 

1  This  list  is  incomplete.  Some  established  English  type-foun- 

f  orms  of  Italian  poetry  require  dries.  For  the  most  part,  accents 

a  special  accent  known  as  trema.  and  points  are  not  sufficiently 

Rumanian  needs  many  accents  distinct.  The  Masoretic  points 

peculiar  to  that  language,  but  as  of  Hebrew  and  the  breathings  of 

yet  not  made  in  this  country.  Greek  are  relatively  feeble.  This 

The  roman  character  predomi-  feebleness  seems  unavoidable  in 
nates  in  Saxon  and  Irish,  but  accents  that  have  to  be  attached 
their  alphabets  have  some  letters  to  roman  capital  letters,  where 
that  are  intelligible  to  educated  the  character  extends  to  the  ex- 
readers  only.  They  are  occasion-  treme  top  of  the  body.  In  many 
ally  used  in  treatises  on  etymol-  fonts  accents  for  capitals  have  to 
ogy,  and  are  to  be  had  of  the  old-  kern  or  overhang  the  body. 


234      The  sigla  and  ligatures  of  Greek 


GREEK 

The  Greek  alphabet  has  twenty-four  capital  letters, 
but  the  ordinary  working  font  of  Greek  type  has 
one  hundred  and  seventy-four  distinct  characters. 
Some  European  type-founders  provide  a  greater 
number.  Many  of  the  Greek  capitals  are  of  the 
same  form  as  roman  capitals,  but  the  lower-case 
letters  differ  seriously  and  are  not  easily  understood 
by  the  novice.  All  fonts  of  Greek  made  before  the 
eighteenth  century  contain  many  doubled  letters, 
then  known  as  ligatures  or  tied  letters.1 

A  manuscript  in  Greek  calls  for  careful  penman- 
ship. Each  letter  should  be  formed  with  distinct- 
ness and  the  accents  unmistakably  placed  over  their 
proper  vowels.  Extracts  pencilled  in  Greek  books 
printed  before  the  eighteenth  century  are  bewilder- 
ing to  the  modern  compositor  by  reason  of  their 
frequent  use  of  the  sigla  and  ligatures  that  are  no 
longer  made  in  type. 

lln  his  Manuel  Typogra-  plete  lists.  An  explanation  of 
phique  (tome  2,  p.  248),  Fournier  many  of  these  ligatures  will  be 
shows  seven  hundred  and  sev-  found  in  Dizionario  di  Abbre- 
enty-six  distinct  characters  in  his  viature  Latine  ed  Italiane,  by 
provision  for  a  perfect  font  of  Adriano  Capelli.  Although  this 
Greek  type,  but  he  says  that  he  dictionary  professes  to  treat  of 
has  not  made  as  many  as  his  pre-  Latin  abbreviations  only,  it  is  of 
decessors.  Savage's  Dictionary  some  service  for  Greek.  These 
of  the  Art  of  Printing  (pp.  300-  ligatures  are  not  made  by  mod- 
302)  gives  a  table  of  some  of  the  ern  type-founders,  but  the  ac- 
more  common  ligatures,  but  the  cents  and  breathings  are  still  re- 
Greek  grammars  of  the  eigh-  tained  as  indispensable  parts  of 
teenth  century  have  more  com-  the  perfect  font. 


Names  and  values  of  Greek  letters     235 


The  Greek  alphabet 


Capitals 

Lower- 
case 

Name 

Power 

Value  as 
numerals 

A 

a 

Alpha 

a 

1 

B 

(36 

Beta 

I 

2 

r 

T 

Gamma 

9 

3 

A 

§ 

Delta 

d 

4 

E 

£ 

Epsilon 

e  short 

5 

Z 

C 

Zeta 

z 

7 

H 

7] 

Eta 

e  long 

8 

9 

6  $• 

Theta 

tli 

9 

I 

t 

Iota 

i 

10 

K 

% 

Kappa 

k  or  c 

20 

A 

X 

Lambda 

I 

30 

M 

|X 

Mu 

m 

40 

N 

V 

Nu 

n 

50 

H 

5 

Xi 

X 

60 

0 

0 

Omicron 

o  short 

70 

n 

7T 

Pi 

p 

80 

p 

P 

Rho 

r 

100 

2 

Sigma 

s 

200 

T 

T 

Tau 

t 

300 

r 

0 

Upsilon 

u 

400 

0 

? 

Phi 

ph 

500 

X 

X 

Chi 

ch 

600 

w 

Psi 

ps 

700 

Q 

0) 

Omega 

o  long 

800 

236          Accents  and  points  of  Greek 

Accents  and  breathings  are  attached  to  the  lower- 
case letters  where  they  are  needed,  but  they  are  also 
cast  on  separate  bodies,  so  that  they  can  be  put 
before  a  capital  letter.  The  vowels  a  ^  GJ,  with  sub- 
script iota  indicating  the  suppression  of  a  following 
i,  may  be  considered  distinct  characters,  but  they 
are  seldom  used.  There  are  also  two  forms  of 
lower-case  letters  (3  ft,  6  #,  a  c.1 

Greek  accents 

'   lenis  "  asper  grave 

e  asper  ~  circumflex 

'   acute  T  circumflex  lenis 

grave  T  circumflex  asper 

lenis  acute  "  dieresis 

lenis  grave  *  dieresis  acute 

asper  acute  'v  dieresis  grave 

The  comma,  period,  and  exclamation -point  per- 
form the  same  function  in  Greek  as  in  English. 
The  Greek  mark  of  interrogation  is  the  English 
semicolon,  sometimes  reversed.  The  Greek  colon 
is  an  inverted  period. 

A  study  of  the  Greek  alphabet  and  of  a  few  rules 
that  control  the  use  of  accents  and  breathings  will 
be  of  service  to  the  compositor,  even  if  he  needs 
this  knowledge  only  for  one  paragraph. 

1  The  characters  6  and  #  are  as  an  initial  or  medial  letter  it 
not  often  required.  The  final  s,  should  be  a.  An  old  form  of 
at  the  end  of  a  word,  should  be  $ ;  p  has  been  suppressed. 


Cases  for  composition  of  Greek        237 

The  plan  of  the  Greek  case  shown  on  this  page  is 
the  one  most  used  in  the  United  States,  but  a  larger 
case  that  contains  boxes  for  more  characters  is  the 
favorite  in  England  and  on  the  Continent.  In  the 
Katechismus  der  Buchdruckerkunst,  page  55,  will  be 
found  diagrams  of  Greek  and  Hebrew  cases  on  an 
improved  plan. 


A 

B 

r 

A 

E 

Z 

H 

e 

I 

K 

A 

M 

N 

S 

E 

s 

e 

£- 

£ 

I 

i 

I 

I 

i 

1 

£ 

e 

1 

0 

n 

P 

2 

T 

r 

$ 

*1 

V 

•^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^3 

^ 

•^ 

1 

H 

^ 

*> 

X 

V 

Q 

Kerned 
<* 

Kerned 
TJ 

Kerned 
<P 

t 

I 

f 

I 

£ 

f 

E 

r 

r 

E 

I 

i 

t 

t 

A 

¥ 

$ 

% 

t 

<P 

6 

b 

8 

6 

i 

6 

5 

0 

0 

6 

5 

5 

6 

5 

A 

cc 

d 

d 

d 

& 

a 

a 

d 

A 

d 

a 

a 

6 

6 

0 

6 

6 

5 

5 

5 

5 

6 

6 

u 

6 

5 

cb 

cb 

(b 

0) 

a> 

0) 

to 

(0 

w 

do 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

._ 

Greek  upper  case. 


8 

sem  Uem 

<r 

tf 

e 

o 

C 

J 

P 

P 

P 

6 

Y 

e 

I 

t 

f) 

d 

e 

V 

X 

K 

X 

V- 

v 

0 

1C 

» 

p 

en 
Quads 

em 
Quads 

$ 

C 
j 

0 

T 

3em  space 

a 

(D 

; 

: 

Quadrats 

- 

Greek  lower  case. 


238  Rules  for  placing  accents 

Nearly  every  word  in  Greek  has  one  accent,  but 
it  has  no  more  than  one  (except,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, before  an  enclitic).1 

Accents  that  cannot  be  put  over  a  Greek  capital 
are  on  separate  bodies  and  put  before  the  capital. 

The  acute  accent  may  appear  only  on  one  of 
the  last  three  syllables  of  a  word,  the  circumflex 
only  on  one  of  the  last  two  syllables,  and  the  grave 
only  on  the  final  syllable.  The  last  is  seldom  used, 
except  to  replace  the  acute  accent  in  a  final  syllable 
before  another  word  in  the  same  sentence. 

Every  vowel  or  diphthong  that  begins  a  word  has 
either  the  rough  or  the  smooth  breathing  over  it. 
The  vowel  upsilon  admits  of  the  rough  breathing 
only.  A  diphthong  takes  both  the  accent  and  the 
breathing  upon  the  second  vowel.  Initial  p  always 
has  the  rough  breathing ;  double  p  occurring  in  a 
word  is  written  pp. 

The  hyphen  is  never  employed  in  Greek  for  the 
compounding  of  words. 

The  apostrophe  is  used  to  mark  elision,  as  in 
dvr'  eKeivTjg  for  dvrl  eKeivrjg.  It  is  also  (under  the 
name  "  coronis  ")  used  to  mark  the  consolidation  of 
words,  with  elision,  as  in  rdvdpi  for  r&  dvdpi,  rdyaOd 
for  rd  dyadd. 

Sometimes  the  apostrophe  marks  the  elision  of 
a  vowel  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  as  in  w  'yaOe 
for  G)  dyaOe,  but  this  is  most  common  in  poetry. 

1  Theoretically  "  every  word,"  but  it  is  lost  by  enclitics  and  pro- 
clitics, and,  in  some  cases,  by  elision. 


Different  faces  of  Greek  239 

The  dieresis  accent  separates  two  vowels,  so  that 
they  will  not  be  pronounced  as  a  diphthong :  di>TTj 
with  a  dieresis  is  a  word  that  makes  three  syllables, 
but  without  the  dieresis  av  becomes  a  diphthong 
and  makes  of  avrr)  two  syllables. 

The  rules  that  regulate  accents  are  complex  and 
not  to  be  briefly  explained.  In  different  positions 
the  same  word  may  take  different  accents. 

Greek  types  are  made  of  many  faces  and  on  many 
bodies  from  diamond  to  canon.1  The  face  most 
approved  in  England  is  known  as  the  Porson,  so 
called  from  its  designer,  who  was  not  only  great  as 
a  scholar,  but  equally  famous  as  a  penman.  Old- 
style  Greek  has  a  relatively  small  face,  with  quaint 
forms  of  lower-case  characters  that  are  now  dis- 
liked by  the  critical.  The  form  of  Greek  character 
preferred  in  many  European  countries  is  com- 
pressed a  little,  and  almost  vertical  in  shape.  The 
Greek  made  by  Baskerville  is  not  at  all  approved 
by  Greek  scholars.  The  fat-faced  and  bold-faced 
Greek,  or  thickened  Greek,  finds  its  greatest  use 
for  the  index  words  of  dictionaries. 

Inscription  Greek,  or  lapidary  Greek,  of  rude  form 
and  consisting  of  capital  letters  only,  is  used  for 
the  proper  rendering  of  old  lettering  cut  on  stone. 
The  facsimile,  on  the  next  page,  of  the  Greek  of  Sel- 
wyn  Image  was  made  for  the  Macmillan  Company. 

i  Pickering's  edition,  in  two  of  typography.     It  is  probably 

volumes,   of  the  Iliad  and  the  the  smallest  form  of  Greek  type 

Odyssey  in  diamond  Greek  is  a  ever  printed,  yet  its  presswork 

remarkably  beautiful  specimen  is  wonderfully  clear. 


240  Different  faces  of  Greek 


Person  Greek. 

ABrAEZH0IKAMNHOnP2TT*XYQ 

a/3€^5s£(?'y]$SixX|ULv|-o'7rp£0'crTti(p}(4/cj 
Old-style  Greek. 


Title  or  fat-faced  Greek. 


Continental  Greek. 

PPIHNEI  .....  AMIAI 
EY4>ANI£I«D£I<AIA/  .  .INOYKAGYO 
£IANAENII<A£lAAMOYArH£IANAPO  . 
.YAAMOYTIMArOPA£n...AI<AEY£ 
.nSITPATOCTEl^  .....  NAPO^P 
.TANYMOYAIPE0EK  ......  YAA 

Inscription  or  lapidary  Greek  of  capitals  only. 

ABrAEZHGIKAMNHOnPCTTOXYQ 

'Opcb    JULCN     o>     aNdpec    'AeHNaToi     rd 
nparuara     no\\HN     duacoXiaN 
KOI  rapayHN,  ou  JUONON  TW  noXXa 

The  Greek  type  of  Mr.  Selwyn  Image. 


Names  and  values  of  Hebrew  letters    241 


HEBREW 

The  Hebrew  alphabet  consists  of  consonants  only, 
but  the  addition  of  points  gives  to  some  of  them 
the  power  of  vowels.  It  is  in  one  series,  without 
difference  in  form  for  capitals  or  lower-case,  and 
has  no  need  for  small  capitals  or  for  italic.  Some  of 
the  letters  are  varied  in  shape  when  used  as  finals. 
Its  numerals,  made  by  arbitrary  powers  given  to  let- 
ters, are  placed  in  the  following  table  at  the  end  of 
the  lines,  opposite  their  proper  letter. 

The  Hebrew  alphabet 


Letter 

Name 

Value 

Letter 

Name 

Value 

N 

Aleph 

1 

D  D 

Mem 

40 

^ 

Beth 

2 

3  y 

Nun 

50 

3 

Gimel 

3 

D 

Samek 

60 

n 

Daleth 

4 

y 

Ayin 

70 

n 

He 

5 

D  firj 

Pe 

80 

i 

Vav 

6 

final 

Tsadhe 

90 

7 

Zayin 

1 

P         ' 

Q'oph 

100 

n 

Cheth 

8 

-| 

Eesh 

200 

B 

Teth 

9 

t^ 

Sin      i 

final 

Yodh 

10 

E^ 

Shin    5 

300 

£     1 

Kaph 

20 

n 

Tav 

400 

Lamedh 

30 

1G 


242      Points  as  guides  to  pronunciation 


characters  of  similar  shape  may  be  confounded,  some  features  of 
difference  are  explained  in  the  following  remarks. 

nTAV  has  a  rounded  angle  at  the 
upper  right  side,  and  a  knob 
at  lower  end  of  left  line. 

I 


BETH,  with  a  rounded  stem  at 
the  upper  right  angle,  rests 
on  a  long,  flat  base  which  pro- 
jects on  the  right. 

KAPH  has  a  curved  line  at  the 
side  that  rests  on  a  shorter 
base-line  that  does  not  pro- 
ject to  the  right. 


1 


ZAYIN  has  a  short  top  line  that 
projects  slightly  over  the  long 
stem. 

VAV  also  has  a  short  top  line, 
but  it  does  not  project  at  all 
over  the  stem. 

NUN  FINAL  is  unlike  Zayin  in 
having  a  very  long  and  slight- 
ly bent  stem  and  no  projec- 
tion. 

TETH  has  a  flat  base  joined  to 
two  lines,  a  curve  at  right, 
a  knob  at  left. 

MEM  has  right  stem  curved ;  the 
left  is  disconnected  at  the 
base,  with  a  knob  at  the  top. 

MEM  FINAL  is  nearly  square  at 
the  base-line  at  right  hand. 

SAMEK  has  a  much  shorter 
base-line. 

AYIN  has  two  knobby  stems 
sloping  to  a  base-line  inclin- 
ing to  left. 

TSADHE,  with  similar  knobby 
stems,  meets  a  base-line  that 
is  horizontal. 

TSADHE  FINAL  has  a  long  ver- 
tical stroke  at  the  junction  of 
two  stems. 


The  point  Daghesh  *  is  cast  within  the  body  of 
certain  letters  to  modify  their  pronunciation.  The 
point  Mappiq  *  (of  same  form)  is  put  in  the  letter 
JTJ  (He  final)  to  make  it  retain  its  harshness  as  a 
consonant.  Eaphe  "  is  a  small  dash  (rarely  used), 
but  on  a  higher  plane,  that  gives  an  aspirated 
sound  to  the  letter  below.  Maqqeph  -  (of  same 
form)  is  used  as  a  hyphen  to  join  words  together. 
These  are  all  the  characters  absolutely  needed  for 


J 

line  that  projects  by  the  side 
of  the  base-line,  which  leaves 

I 

a  small  angle  at  the  right. 

) 

to 

NUN  has  an  upright  line  that 

J 

does  not  project  :  it  meets  a 

short  base-line  and  does  not 

fa 

make  a  sharp  point  at  the 

w 

right. 

n 

DALETH  is  a  right  angle,  flat  at 
the  top,  projecting  over  its 
vertical  stem  to  the  right. 

D 

*^ 

RESH,   of  a   similar    form,  is 

D 

i 

rounded  at  the  angle  that  ap- 
pears at  its  right  and  does  not 
project  over  its  stem. 

•• 

D 

KAPH  FINAL,  like  Daleth,  has 

a  projecting  angle  at  top,  but 
has  a  longer  descending  stem. 

y 

n 

HE    has   two    stems,    slightly 
thickened;  the  one  at  the  left 

\j 

is  disconnected. 

n 

CHETH  has  two  stems,  each  one 
connected  to  the  flat  line  at 

V 

the  top. 

1 

Accents  and  Masoretic  points         243 

the  proper  rendering  of  an  ordinary  word  or  line 
of  Hebrew,  but  for  grammatical  and  theological 
works  many  accents  must  be  provided.  These 
accents  are  cast  on  small  bodies  and  are  placed 
above  or  below  the  type  of  the  text. 

ACCENTS  PLACED   UNDER   CONSONANTS 

I  Silluq,  only  at  the  end  of  the  verse,  )  Merkha. 

therefore  always  followed  by :  Soph-  »  Double-Merkha. 

pasuq,  which  stands  between  the  J  Munach. 

single  verses.  <  Mahpakh  (to  the  left    of 

A  Athnach,  always  in  the  midst  of  a  the  vowel). 

verse.  $  Darga. 

<  Yethibh  (always  to  the  right  of  the  v  Yarach. 

vowel).  (  Tiphcha  final. 

y  Tebhir.  I  Metheg,  sign  of  tone 

f  Tiphcha  initial.  (to  the  left  of  the  vowel). 

ACCENTS  PLACED  ABOVE  CONSONANTS 

.'.  Segholta.  •>  Qadma.  9  Great-Telisha. 

:  Zaqeph-qaton.  >  Pashta.  9  Little-Telisha. 

i:  Zaqeph-gadhol.  |  Shalsheleth.  f  Garesh. 

*  Rebhia.  v  Paser.  „  Double-Garesh. 

<\>   Zarqa.  9P  Qarne-phara. 

ACCENTS  OF  TWO  PARTS  THAT  BELONG  TOGETHER: 
ONE  ABOVE  AND  THE  OTHER  BELOW  CONSONANTS 

Merkha  mahpakhatum.  ^  Merkha  sarqatum. 

<   Mahpakh  sarqatum. 

MARKS   OP  PUNCTUATION 

:  Soph-pasuq,  separating  verses.        -  Maqqeph,  hyphen,  aloft, 
I  Pesiq,  between  the  words.  between  the  words. 

MASORETIC  POINTS  OR  VOWELS 

The  Masoretic  points  or  vowels,  ten  in  number, 
five  long,  or  perfect,  and  five  short,  or  imperfect, 
are  represented  by  small  strokes  or  points  placed 
above,  below,  or  within  the  consonants.  Examples 


244          Vowel-points  and  consonants 

of  their  uses  in  connection  with  the  letter  Beth 
(33)  are  given  below. 

Long  Vowels  under  the  Consonants 
Kamets    =  a  as  in  bar l  3  or  o  as  in  bone  2 

T 

Tsaray  a>  =  a  as  in  bale 2  3  or  e  as  in  bed l 
Chirek  (long  when  followed  by  Yodh)  m  =  i  as 
in  bijou  3 

Long  Vowel  above  the  Consonants 

Cholem     or  ]  =  o  as  in  bowl 1  ^3  or  ow  as  m 
bow2  (curtsy) 

Long  Vowel  within  the  Letter  "> 
Shurek  !)  =  u  as  in  Buddha  }  2 

Short  Vowels  under  the  Consonants 
Pathach  _  =  a  as  in  bar.     When  followed  by 
an  unvocalized  Yodh  *>  it  forms  with  the  latter  the 
diphthong  ai,  pronounced  like  i  in  bite  3 

Pathach  furtive      is  a  Pathach  occurring  only 
under  the  letters  H,  H,  and  J?/  when  the  letters  oc- 
cur at  the  end  of  a  word,  and  is  pronounced  before 
the  consonant  under  which  it  is  placed. 
Segol      =  e  as  in  bet  3 

Chirek  (short)  t  =  i  as  in  bin  3 

Kamets  Chatuph  T  =  o  as  in  son  or  bone  3 

Kibuts  .  =  u  as  in  bull  3 

1  According  to  Spanish  and  Portuguese  pronunciation. 

2  According  to  German  pronunciation. 
The  other  vowels  are  pronounced  alike. 


The  lay  of  cases  for  Hebrew          245 

SHEVAS 

The  following  Shevas,  used  here  beneath  a  Cheth 
(J"j),  denote  that  a  vowel  is  wanting. 
Sheva  (simple)  _         as  H 

Chataph  Pathach  _  as  H  =  a 
Chataph  Segol ...  as  H  =  e 
Chataph  Kamets  .  as  H  =  o 

The  last  three  are  short  vowels  to  which  the  Sheva 
(simple  [*] )  is  joined,  and  are  known  as  compound 
Shevas. 

Hebrew  is  read  from  right  to  left.  To  give  to  the 
characters  this  sequence  in  print,  the  types  must 
be  reversed  after  they  have  been  set.  The  com- 
positor begins  as  he  does  with  English,  by  setting 
the  characters  at  the  left  hand  of  his  copy,  turning 
the  nicks  of  the  type  inward  to  face  the  composing- 
rule.  When  the  line  has  been  spaced  and  justified 
(wide  spacing  is  preferred),  turn  the  line  in  the  stick. 
If  accents  are  to  be  added,  justify  them  in  a  sepa- 
rate line  in  their  proper  places. 

Hebrew  is  laid  in  the  cases  by  many  different 
schemes,  but  the  scheme  here  exhibited  is  the  one 
generally  accepted  by  most  of  the  compositors  in 
America.  The  characters  without  points,  most 
used,  are  in  the  lower  case ;  accents,  finals,  broad 
letters,  and  letters  with  points  are  in  the  upper  case. 


246       Cases  for  composition  of  Hebrew 


N 

t 

ri 

^ 

-I 

n 

w 

1 

h 

\ 

T 

^ 

s\ 

1 

n 

i 

-n 

^ 

n 

n 

s 

o 

m 

n 

3 

1 

n 

1 

H 

D 

•I 

i 

j 

< 

(\ 

Q 

i 

0 

3 

!t 

P 

i 

D 

a 

u 

o 

j 

J) 

.J 

ro 

\ 

D 

s 

D 

n 

a 

U) 

w 

V 

tf 

«y 

is/ 

] 

1 

\ 

IT 

\: 

\" 

r 

IV 

r 

Hebrew  upper  ease. 


D  0 

CO 

P 

n 

T 

» 

'. 

•" 

V 

- 

i 

D 

= 

» 

• 

i 

• 

i 

D 

> 

s& 

p,  • 

en 
Quads 
fci-pon* 

em 

Ou«U 

| 

D 

3 

n 

» 

« 

D 

D 

D 

J^ 

Y 

i 

; 

n 

D 

» 

-1 

1 

: 

C~3 

T 

• 

- 

Hebrew  lower  case. 

The  accents  are  useful  as  notes  for  chanting,  or  to 
show  nice  distinctions  in  the  meanings  of  words. 
They  have  to  be  separately  composed  and  justified 
for  attachment  to  the  proper  character.  For  the 
most  part,  the  accents  are  centred  over  or  under 
the  characters,  but  when  a  character  has  a  long  leg 
or  stem  the  accent  should  be  under  the  leg. 


The  letters  of  the  German  language    247 

A  word  in  Hebrew  cannot  be  divided  by  a  hyphen 
so  that  one  part  shall  be  in  one  line  and  the  other 
part  in  the  next  line.  To  prevent  this  fault,  and  to 
maintain  more  evenness  in  the  spacing  of  words, 
six  Hebrew  letters  are  made  of  greater  width : 

Aleph  He  Cheth         Lamedh          Mem  Tav 

>*      n     n       San 

The  characters  here  shown  are  the  ones  used  for 
all  ordinary  printing  in  Hebrew.  There  are  other 
forms,  known  as  Rabbinic  and  German-rabbinic. 
Hebrew  running-hand  is  of  much  simpler  form,  in 
which  letters  with  curved  lines  are  substituted  for 
the  angled  letters,  but  it  can  be  read  and  put  in 
type  by  those  only  who  understand  the  language. 

GERMAN 

The  German  alphabet  has  nominally  twenty-six 
capital  letters,  but  the  same  character  serves  for  I 
and  J.  The  capitals  $,  Qf  and  U  have  the  umlaut 
attached  to  indicate  the  sounds  of  ftC,  OC,  and  UC+ 
The  lower-case  series  is  increased  by  a  distinct 
character  for  \f  and  by  the  addition  of  thirteen 
double  letters.  A  font  of  German  has  no  small 
capitals,  and  the  use  of  italic  is  obviated  by  the 
hair-spacing  of  emphasized  words,  or  by  selecting 
for  these  words  a  type  of  a  much  bolder  or  an  en- 
tirely different  face. 


248     German  upper-  and  lower-case  letters 


The  German  alphabet 


Capitals 

Lower- 
case 

Capitals 

Lower- 
case 

Name 

a 

a 

A 

a 

Ah 

S3 

f> 

B 

b 

Bey 

£ 

C 

C 

c 

Tsey 

3D 

b 

D 

d 

Dey 

g 

e 

E 

e 

Ey 

g 

f 

F 

f 

Ef 

® 

g 

G 

g 

Gey 

«§ 

y 

H 

h 

Hah 

3 

1 

I 

i 

E 

3 

i 

J 

J 

Yot 

$ 

i 

K 

k 

Kah 

8 

i 

L 

1 

El 

3R 

m 

M 

m 

Em 

9? 

n 

N 

n 

En 

D 

0 

0 

0 

0 

$ 

p 

P 

P 

Pey 

Q 

q 

Q 

q 

Koo 

81 

r 

R 

r 

Aii- 

<S 

f* 

S 

fs 

Ess 

2 

t 

T 

t 

Tey 

U 

u 

U 

u 

Oo 

SJ 

D 

V 

v 

Fow 

2B 

m 

W 

w 

Vey 

£ 

r 

X 

X 

Iks 

§) 

9 

Y 

y 

Ypsilon 

3 

§ 

Z 

Z 

Tset 

Distinctions  of  shape  in  German  letters    249 

To  the  hasty  observer  some  German  letters  are 
not  sufficiently  distinct.  To  prevent  mistakes  in 
selection,  the  differences  between  similar  characters 
are  here  pointed  out. 


33 


e 
e 

© 


ft 


9? 


3R 

SB 


B  has  a  central  cross-stroke 
that  connects  the  two  stems. 

V  has  no  connecting  cross- 
stroke,  and  shows  an  open 
space  between  stems. 

C  has  no  projection,  at  the 
right,  from  its  shorter  stem. 

E  has  a  short  side-stroke  pro- 
jecting from  the  middle  of 
this  short  stem. 

G  has  two  rounded  stems 
connected  at  the  base-line, 
and  a  curved  upright  stroke 
between  them. 

S  is  another  rounded  letter, 
but  the  curved  stroke  within 
has  a  horizontal  extension 
and  does  not  connect. 

K  has  a  curved  hair-line  pro- 
jection at  its  top,  and  its  two 
stems  are  connected  in  the 
middle. 

N  has  two  stems  connected  at 
the  head,  but  not  at  the  foot. 

R  has  its  two  stems  connected 
in  the  middle. 

M  has  stems  that  are  con- 
nected at  the  head  and  not 
connected  on  the  foot-line. 

W  has  stems  that  are  con- 
nected on  the  foot-line  as 
well  as  on  the  head. 


6 
* 

f 

f 

m 
n> 

r 
r 


b  has  its  shorter  stem  united 
to  the  longer  stem  at  its 
foot-line. 

h  is  not  so  united,  and  has  a 
hair-line  that  projects  be- 
low the  foot-line. 

f  has  a  short  central  stroke 

that    crosses    the    upright 

thick  stem, 
s  has  a  projecting  spur  on  the 

left  side  only  of  the  thick 

stroke. 

m  has  three  stems  connected 
at  the  top  and  disconnected 
at  the  foot-line. 

w  has  three  stems  also,  but 
the  latter  two  are  connected 
at  the  foot-line. 

r  has  no  hair-stroke  at  the 
left  side  of  the  stem  at  its 
foot. 

x  has  a  long  hair-line  on  the 
left  side  of  the  stem  at  its 
foot,  which  the  r  has  not. 


v  has  its  two  stems  connected 
at  the  top  and  at  the  foot. 

y  has  stems  connected  at  the 
top  only;  its  right  stem 
projects  below  the  foot. 


Although  t  and  {  are  of  the  same  form  in  capi- 
tals, the  lower-case  j  projects  below  the  foot-line, 
as  it  does  in  English.  The  lower-case  f  is  used  at 
the  beginning  and  in  the  middle  of  words,  but  the 
final  $  is  always  of  short  form. 


250       Cases  for  composition  of  German 


* 

§ 

t 

t 

II 

l 

iy 

m 

6 

u 

— 

- 

_ 

1 

a 

23 

£ 

D 

e 

g 

0 

* 

3 

ft 

8 

9H 

gi 

D 

] 

$ 

Q 

SR 

@ 

2; 

25 

2B 

ft 

ff 

ft 

ff 

'  ft 

§ 

n 

i 

8) 

3 

U 

? 

i 

' 

German  upper  case  as  laid  in  the  United  States. 


ti 

6 

u|  i 

ID 

t 

M2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

j 

U 

i 

* 

b 

f 

1 

9 

3 

C 

9 

ft 

0 

& 
} 

1 

m 

n 

^ 

0 

f 

V. 

W 

f 

D 

n 

0' 

0 

r 

\> 

u 

t 

D 

a 

t 

i 

: 

tm 

q 

* 

German  lower  case  as  laid  in  the  United  States. 
The  thirteen  double  letters  of  German  are : 


CJ)  ch 

d  ck 

ff  ff 

ft  ft 


ffi     ffi 
fl      fl 

fl    u 


ft     si 

ff     ss 
(ft    ssi 


ft     st 
fl     sz 


Peculiarities  of  composition  in  German    251 

In  the  United  States  the  ordinary  upper  and  lower 
cases  that  are  used  for  English  are  made  to  serve 
for  the  casing  of  German  type.  The  scheme  pre- 
sented on  the  preceding  page  is  that  of  the  arrange- 
ment in  many  book-printing  houses  where  German 
is  used  only  for  occasional  words  or  quoted  lines. 
In  Germany  the  characters  for  a  complete  font  are 
laid  in  one  broad  case  of  peculiar  construction. 1 

The  accent  most  used  is  the  umlaut  over  vowels 
Cl,  0,  and  IU  German  nouns,  common  as  well  as 
proper,  take  capitals  for  initial  letters,  but  adjec- 
tives derived  from  proper  nouns,  as  a  rule,  do  not 
take  the  capital.  The  words  frankfurtisch,  eng- 
lisch,  preussisch,  for  Frankfortish,  English,  and 
Prussian,  do  not  take  capitals,  but  when  such  ad- 
jectives form  part  of  compound  proper  names,  as  in 
Schwarze  Meer  (Black  Sea),  they  do  take  a  capital. 
Frederick  the  Second  takes  capitals  in  Friedrich 
der  Zweite.  The  first  personal  pronoun,  ich,  begins 
with  a  small  i,  but  the  person  addressed,  Sie,  or  you, 
takes  a  capital. 

Words  are  divided  with  the  same  irregularity 
that  now  prevails  in  English.  The  scholarly  writer 
prefers  to  divide  a  word  by  its  derivation ;  the  ordi- 
nary writer,  by  its  pronunciation.  One  practice  is 
fixed :  some  double  letters  cannot  be  divided ;  the 
doubled  consonant  at  the  end  of  a  line,  as  in  fyet*ffett 
or  3Mfef  is  always  put  over  in  the  second  line. 

1  For  the  plan  of  this  case,  see  Weber's  Katechismus  der 
Buchdruckerkunst,  p.  53, 16mo,  Leipsic,  1901. 


252  Faces  of  German  type 

Hyphens  are  employed  in  great  profusion  for  the 
compounding  of  words  when  these  words  are  used 
as  a  long  phrase  or  a  qualifier. 

The  apostrophe  is  frequently  used,  especially  in 
poetry,  to  indicate  a  suppressed  vowel. 

Quotation-marks  in  German  are  made  at  the 
beginning  of  the  quotation  with  two  comma-like 
marks  that  project  below  the  line,  and  at  its  end 
by  the  same  marks  inverted,  which  are  then  at  the 
top  of  the  line.  The  apostrophe  is  never  used  for 
a  quote-mark. 

Arabic  figures  are  as  common  in  German  as  in 
English,  but  for  emphasis  the  italic  character  is 
studiously  avoided,  yet  is  sometimes  used  as  a  mark 
of  reference. 


Fraktur. 


abcbefcjfyijflmnopqrstuptt) 

Schwabacher. 

a6c&0fgljtjK£mno 

German  text. 


Use  of  r  oman  letter  in  Germany       253 

These  characters  are  strictly  and  almost  exclusively 
German,  but  German  type-founders  make  many 
other  forms.  The  spurs  and  angles  of  black-letter 
favor  the  invention  of  eccentric  variations,  which 
have  always  been  in  favor  with  job-printers  every- 
where.1 Flemish  black-letter  is  occasionally  used 
for  display  lines  in  some  kinds  of  book-  work. 


QK  &  (B*  Qt  <D 
4f0tuf>tPt 

Old  Flemish  black  used  by  Caxton. 


Modern  Flemish  black. 

The  roman  character,  known  in  Germany  as  the 
Antiqua,  is  preferred  for  the  printing  of  scientific 
books.  The  regular  German  letter,  used  in  news- 
papers and  for  ordinary  books,  is  known  as  Frak- 
tur.  The  lower-case  characters  of  the  Fraktur  are 
much  compressed  :  the  ordinary  lower-case  alpha- 
bet measures  only  about  ten  ems  of  its  own  body  ; 
roman  lower-case  of  the  same  body  by  British  and 
American  standards  measures  thirteen  ems.  A 
broader  and  simpler  form  of  German  character  is 
known  as  Schwabacher.  This  tendency  to  simpli- 
fication is  increasing;  many  of  the  faces  recently 
produced  by  German  founders  for  text  types  are 

1  See  Chapter  X  of  Plain  Printing  Types. 


254  German  script 

much  more  distinct  than  those  in  fashion  during 
the  last  century. 

A  careful  compositor  who  does  not  understand 
the  German  alphabet  can  fairly  represent  it  in  type 
when  he  has  printed  copy,  but  it  is  not  wise  for  him 
to  attempt  to  set  type  from  German  manuscript, 
for  its  script  is  unusually  bewildering. 

GERMAN    SCRIPT 


? 
A    a  BbCc  DdEe         Ff         Gg 


HhliJj          Kk  LI  Mm  Nn 


^x 
/ 
OoPp         Qq  Rr          Ss  Tt  On 


Vv  Ww  XxYy  Zz 

Diphthongs  Joined  letters 


ch       ss      st      sz 


DAVID    BRUCE,   JR. 


VII 
MAKING  UP 

The  running  title  .  .  .  Signatures  .  .  .  Notes  and  illustrations 


EFORE  the  making  up  of  type 
from  galleys  is  attempted,  the 
maker-up  should  have  for  his 
instruction  a  diagram  of  one 
page,  which  should  be  pen- 
drawn  upon  a  regular  section, 
properly  folded,  of  the  paper 
that  will  be  used  for  printing  the  book.  On  the 
first  leaf  of  this  section  should  be  outlined  in  exact 
position  the  length  and  width  of  the  page  to  show 
the  margins  required ;  written  directions  should  be 
added  concerning  signatures,  types  for  running 
title,  subheadings,  the  sinkage  of  chapter  heads, 
the  blank  space  above  and  below  extracts,  and  all 
other  details  about  which  there  may  be  uncertainty. 
This  diagram  should  be  approved  by  the  author. 

255 


256  Gauge  for  length  of  pages 

The  first  duty  of  the  maker-up  is  to  cut  and  notch 
a  gauge  of  cherry  reglet  to  the  length  of  the  page 
ordered.  The  gauge  should  be  a  full  page  of  the 
regular  text  type  only  (without  cuts,  extracts,  tables, 
or  blank  lines),  upon  which  should  be  written  the 
number  of  regular  lines.  The  lines  on  every  page 
should  be  in  exact  register  with  corresponding  lines 
on  the  back  of  that  page,  but  this  nicety  may  not 
be  attained  if  the  proper  marking  of  important 
divisions  on  the  gauge  has  been  neglected. 


33  lines  of  type,  including  head-  and  foot- lines. 


Gauge  for  making  up  pages. 

In  most  printing-houses  making  up  is  done  from 
the  type  that  has  been  read  and  corrected  on  the 
galleys.1  Before  cutting  the  gauge  for  pages  in- 
tended to  be  printed  direct  from  type,  ascertain 
the  length  of  the  furniture  in  stock  that  will  be 
needed  for  the  gutters  of  the  back  margins.  Each 
page  of  type  should  be  a  little  longer  than  the  gut- 
ters, but  when  the  gutters  in  stock  are  only  a  trifle 
longer,  the  foot-line  should  be  set  in  a  larger  size 

1  A  book  or  pamphlet  ordered  chooses  to  add  new  or  to  cancel 

in  great  haste  may  have  to  be  old  matter  upon  the  proof  of  the 

made  up  before  its  reading  and  made-up  page,  every  page  fol- 

correction,  but  this  method  is  lowing  in  that  chapter  will  have 

not  to  be  recommended.    If  any  to  be  re-made  up.    This  means 

compositor  has  made  a  very  long  an  unnecessary  waste  of  time 

out  or  doublet,  or  if  the  author  and  serious  expense. 


Measurement  of  matter  comes  first     257 

of  quadrats  that  will  make  the  page  project  a  trifle 
beyond  the  gutter.  This  forethought  may  prevent 
the  needless  cutting  of  furniture.1 

The  galleys  of  composed  type  that  will  be  needed 
for  the  making  up  of  a  full  form  of  letterpress 
should  be  assembled  in  front  of  or  near  to  the 
maker-up  before  he  begins  his  work.  These  galleys 
should  be  accompanied  with  the  copy  and  proof,  as 
well  as  the  cuts,  tables,  maps,  or  any  other  irregu- 
larity that  may  be  needed  in  the  form.  When  there 
are  no  such  irregularities  to  an  even  make-up  as 
are  produced  by  cuts  and  tables,  the  maker-up  can 
approximately  measure  and  mark  off  on  the  proof 
the  proper  length  for  each  page  before  he  begins  to 
separate  the  composed  matter,  but  he  must  regulate 
its  division  so  that  the  last  short  line  of  a  paragraph 
in  a  descriptive  text  shall  not  appear  as  the  first  line 
on  a  new  page.  In  this  position  the  short  line  is 
a  blemish  to  be  prevented.  Poetry  and  short  dia- 
logue matter  are  unavoidable  exceptions. 

When  it  is  required  that  a  pamphlet  of  one  or 
two  sheets  shall  consist  of  or  not  exceed  the  pre- 
scribed number  of  pages,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
shorten  or  lengthen  the  page.  For  this  possible 
departure  from  written  instructions  on  the  folded 
pattern  sheet,  explanation  must  be  made  to  and 
permission  for  change  be  had  from  the  foreman. 
The  space  occupied  by  composition  must  be  care- 
fully computed,  and  the  matter  must  be  arranged 

l  See  illustration  on  page  63. 
17 


258      Needed  materials  to  be  accessible 

and  divided  so  that  it  can  be  kept  within  the  limit. 
In  matter  on  galley,  leads  or  blanks  can  be  added 
when  it  is  necessary  to  drive  out,  or  they  can  be 
withdrawn  with  facility  when  the  matter  has  to  be 
taken  in  j  but  if  pages  are  made  up  unthinkingly, 
without  some  previous  calculation  of  the  space  to 
be  occupied,  they  will  have  to  be  made  up  anew. 

The  maker-up  is  measurably  responsible  for  the 
justification  of  composition  passed  by  him.  If  he 
finds  that  it  has  been  slackly  justified,  or  if  type 
has  been  set  up  in  an  unworkmanlike  manner,  he 
should  return  the  galley  to  the  compositor  in  fault, 
and  require  him  to  amend  it. 

The  maker-up  should  be  in  an  alley  where  he  has 
ready  access  to  leads  of  different  thickness,  quad- 
rats of  different  bodies,  brass  rules  of  graduated 
length,  and  to  quotations,  or  electrotyping  bearers, 
and  all  needed  kinds  of  blanking -out  materials. 
The  running  titles,  foot-lines,  and  blanks  that  are 
required  for  one  full  form  should  be  set  before 
making  up  begins,  and  be  placed  on  small  galleys 
within  easy  reach.  It  wastes  time  to  set  them  sep- 
arately during  the  process  of  making  up. 

A  quarto  galley  of  brass  with  a  low  rim  should 
be  preferred  for  making  up  and  tying  up  the  ordi- 
nary page.  The  page  cord,  which  should  be  thin, 
strong,  and  long  enough  to  surround  the  page  four 
times,  is  first  placed  at  the  outer  lower  corner  of 
the  page,  and  is  there  tightly  held  by  a  finger  of 
the  left  hand  while  it  is  successively  stretched  with 


Composition  to  be  on  its  feet          259 

increasing  tightness  around  the  four  corners.  The 
free  end  of  the  cord  is  made  secure  by  thrusting  it 
between  the  tightened  cord  and  the  type  with  the 
nib  of  the  composing-rule,  in  a  loop  at  the  place  of 
its  beginning,  and  drawing  the  loop  tightly  toward 
the  near  corner.  The  free  end  of  this  cord  must 
be  left  exposed  upon  the  face  of  the  page,  so  that 
it  can  be  easily  seized  and  unwound  by  the  stoneman 
when  he  has  protected  each  page  in  the  form  with 
surrounding  furniture. 


Quadrats  with  nicks  at  the  ends  of  the  foot-line 
should  have  the  nicks  turned  inward  to  allow  a  free 
up-and-down  movement  of  the  page  cord.  The 
nib  of  the  composing-rule  can  be  used  to  push  the 
cord  up  and  down  at  diagonally  opposed  corners 
to  increase  the  tightness  of  the  cord  and  give  it  a 
broader  bearing  against  the  centre. 

Each  lift  of  type  put  upon  the  make-up  galley 
should  be  pressed  upward  and  compacted  sidewise 
to  make  the  composition  square  and  solid.  If  this 
is  not  done,  the  type  may  be  tilted  slightly  or  made 


260  Odd  and  even  pages 

up  "  off  its  feet."  This  fault  is  hard  to  rectify  on 
stone  or  press.  The  page  of  type  off  its  feet  is  sure 
to  make  a  faulty  electrotype  plate. 

The  copy  and  the  proof  should  be  continually 
before  the  maker-up,  who  must  see  that  the  begin- 
ning of  each  paragraph  in  type  tallies  with  the  same 
paragraph  in  copy.  To  neglect  this  precaution  is 
to  hazard  the  risk  of  an  omitted  or  a  transposed 
paragraph. 

Making  up  includes  much  more  than  the  division 
of  matter  in  pages  of  uniform  length.  The  maker- 
up  is  required  to  set  the  running  titles,  with  their 
paging  figures,  blank  lines,  and  foot-lines,  to  adjust 
the  variable  width  of  the  blanks,  properly  to  place 
notes,  tables,  extracts,  illustrations,  and  finally  to 
put  the  made-up  pages  in  proper  order  upon  the 
stone.  In  some  printing-houses  he  is  required  also 
to  set  chapter  headings  and  subheadings. 

THE   EUNNING   TITLE 

The  pages  known  to  bibliographers  as  recto  and 
verso  are  respectively  called  by  printers  odd  and 
even.  The  figures  for  odd  pages,  as  1,  3,  5,  7,  etc., 
are  set  at  the  end  of  the  line ;  the  even  pages,  2,  4, 
6,  8,  etc.,  are  set  at  the  beginning  of  the  line.  The 
white  line  that  separates  the  running  title  from  the 
text,  as  well  as  the  foot-line  at  the  end  of  the  page, 
is  often  composed  with  quadrats  of  the  type  of 
the  text,  but  when  the  running  title  has  been 


Paging  figures  261 

ordered  in  small  capitals  over  a  text  of  large  type, 
the  white  line  so  made  will  be  found  too  wide,  and 
a  narrower  blank  will  be  more  approved.  In  some 
recent  books  of  good  workmanship  two  leads  only 
are  used  in  place  of  the  white  line. 

The  words  and  the  type  for  the  running  title  at 
the  head  of  every  page  are  usually  determined  by 
the  author.  When  this  running  title  is  a  summary 
of  the  contents  of  the  page,  which  cannot  be  written 
before  the  page  has  been  made  up,  it  is  customary 
to  set  up  a  quadrat  line  with  paging  figures  only 
and  to  ask  the  author  to  write  the  running  title  on 
the  proof  of  the  made-up  page. 

Some  books  are  ordered  without  paging  figures 
in  the  running  title.  Paging  is  made  with  small 
figures  in  the  foot-line,  where  they  may  be  an  an- 
noyance to  the  gatherers  of  the  folded  sections  by 
confusing  the  figures  of  the  signature  with  those 
of  the  page.  The  thin  figures  that  are  cast  upon  the 
en  body  may  not  be  sufficiently  legible.  When  it 
can  be  done,  distinctive  figures  should  be  selected, 
that  cannot  be  confounded  with  the  signatures. 

—  16-  (362)  HI468*-  [17] 

When  there  is  no  running  title,  the  paging  fig- 
ures may  be  put  in  the  centre  of  the  head -line  in 
the  type  of  the  text.  It  is  not  an  improvement  to 
inclose  them  in  brackets  or  parentheses,  or  to  add 
to  the  figures  dashes  or  decoration  of  any  kind. 


262          Illustrations  of  running  titles 

Paging  figures  on  a  smaller  or  larger  body  than 
that  of  the  text  type  may  be  justified  in  and  made 
solid  with  the  quadrat  line  below  them  by  the  use 
of  a  properly  selected  thin  space.  The  large  figure 
for  paging  is  generally  preferred.  Quadrats  are 
better  for  the  blank  line  below  the  running  title ; 
two  leads  may  be  allowed,  but  three  or  more  tend 
to  make  composition  spongy. 

Some  pages  need  no  running  title.  It  is  never 
placed  over  a  chapter  heading  or  over  a  full- width 
illustration  that  appears  at  the  head  of  the  page, 
but  the  paging  figure  that  is  needed  should  be  put 
in  the  foot-line.  In  centring  a  running  title,  pag- 
ing figures  must  be  rated  as  blanks  or  quadrats. 

In  some  books  the  selection  of  type  for  the  run- 
ning title  is  left  to  the  maker-up,  who  should  find 
variety  enough  in  the  different  sizes  and  faces  of 
roman  and  italic  capitals  or  lower-case.  Black- 
letter  may  be  occasionally  selected  to  advantage. 
Monotype  and  light-faced  antiques  are  permitted 
in  running  titles  that  may  receive  undue  wear, 
but  ornamental  types  and  pen-drawn  lettering  are 
never  acceptable  to  the  discreet  publisher. 


or. 


For  dainty  little  books  very  small  capitals  were 
once  in  high  favor,  but  when  the  word  was  short 
and  over  a  page  of  type  of  a  body  three  or  four  sizes 
larger,  the  running  title  in  this  style  was  feeble. 


Illustrations  of  running  titles          263 

Thin  spaces  make  the  running  title  of  small  capitals 
a  little  clearer,  but  the  figures  for  pages  are  usually 
too  small,  and  the  cross-rule  underneath  does  not 
compensate  for  this  feebleness.  In  the  running 
title  of  many  words,  thin  spacing  of  small  capitals 
is  impossible,  and  unspaced  small  capitals  are  not 
easily  read,  nor  is  the  effectiveness  of  a  running 
title  in  small  capitals  improved  by  selecting  full 
capitals  as  initials  for  important  words.  Small  capi- 
tals of  pica  are  small  enough  for  an  octavo  page. 

The  running  title  of  one  word  only  may  be  in 
capitals  of  the  text  or  of  one  or  two  sizes  larger. 

64  VOLTAIRE 

The  spacing  out  of  the  letters  of  a  short  word  until 
it  fills  the  measure  is  one  of  the  many  freaks  of 
modern  practice  that  have  been  found  attractive  in 
advertising  pamphlets,  but  it  is  not  commendable 
in  the  running  title  of  any  library  book. 

VOLTAIEE 

Running  titles  that  indicate  the  subject-matter  of 
each  page  are  most  acceptable  in  the  lower-case 
italic  of  the  text.  Capital  letters  may  be  used  in 
a  running  title  of  lower-case  for  its  first  letter  and 
for  strictly  proper  names,  but  not  as  emphasis  for 
important  words.  Italic  larger  than  the  text  may 
be  used  with  advantage  on  a  large  page,  but  an  italic 
of  smaller  body  than  the  text  type  is  never  pleasing. 


264          Illustrations  of  running  titles 


64  THE   INVENTION   OF   WRITING 

A  running  title  with  more  words  than  can  be  crowded  in 
one  line  must  be  divided  to  appear  on  two  facing  pages. 
When  the  chapter  ends  upon  an  even  page,  a  condensation 
of  the  title  matter  should  be  supplied  by  the  author. 

462  HISTORY   OF  ENGLAND      CH.  XV 

Standard  histories  often  have  their  running  titles  in  full 
capitals  on  a  body  two  sizes  smaller  than  that  of  the  text. 
Specifications  of  chapter  or  of  date  are  sometimes  added. 


176  ZEAL   AND    IMPRUDENCE      CH.  XXIII 

In  other  histories  the  mention  of  the  chapter,  book,  or 
canto  is  made  a  shoulder-note  to  line  with  the  first  line  of 
text,  but  this  is  done  to  best  advantage  on  pages  that 
have  side-notes. 


66  A    SENTIMENTAL   JOURNEY 

When  the  text  type  is  leaded,  the  running  title  may  be 
thin-spaced  with  good  effect,  but  avoid  em  quadrats. 


78          BABYLONIAN   LEGEND 

Italic  capitals  are  not  a  wise  choice,  for  some  of  their 
types  are  kerned  and  liable  to  break,  and  some  letters  do 
not  neatly  mate  with  other  letters.  They  often  show  gaps 
and  unequal  inclinations  that  are  unsightly. 


MOLINOS  THE   QUIETIST 

Another  novelty  in  running  titles  is  the  placing  of  the 
words  close  up  to  the  back  margin  of  each  page. 


Illustrations  of  running  titles         265 


EGYPTIAN   HIEROGLYPHICS  65 

The  division  of  over-long  matter  for  the  running  title 
should.not  mangle  phrases.  Closely  related  words  should 
be  kept  together,  even  if  one  word  only  appears  on  one  page. 
A  long  word  should  never  be  divided  with  a  hyphen. 


1689  WILLIAM   AND   MARY  463 

Sometimes  the  specification  of  the  number  of  the  chapter, 
book,  or  canto  in  the  running  title,  at  the  end  of  the  line, 
is  needlessly  fenced  off  with  brackets. 


A.D.  OF   THE    CHRISTIANS  177 

362 

If  side-notes  are  used,  the  page  figure  should  extend  over 
them.  If  it  can  be  done,  keep  the  specification  of  chapter 
over  the  side-notes,  but  it  is  not  an  improvement  to  separate 
it  from  notes  with  a  three-em  brace  or  dash. 


THROUGH  FRANCE  AND  ITALY      67 

A  wide-spaced  running  title  over  a  compactly  set  page  of 
text  makes  an  unpleasing  contrast. 


OF    THE    CREATION  79 

In  this  illustration  the  unsightly  gaps  have  been  concealed 
to  some  extent  by  judicious  spacing.  A  wider  spacing  is  not 
recommended.  It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  spaces 
between  letters  should  compel  wider  spaces  between  words. 


MOLINOS   THE   QUIETIST  87 

This  method  of  treating  the  running  title  may  be  used 
with  black-letter. 


266         Illustrations  of  running  titles 


833    The  MEMOIRS  of  BooKVIll 

This  facsimile  of  the  running  title  of  a  London  book  of 
the  early  eighteenth  century  fairly  exhibits  the  taste  of 
early  printers  in  the  selection  of  type  and  the  use  of  rules. 


1 8      MODERN    PRINTING 


Thick-faced  rules,  apparently  first  used  by  the  Strawberry 
Hill  Press,  and  afterward  more  boldly  by  the  Lee  Priory 
Press,  have  been  recently  revived.  They  seem  an  attempt 
on  the  part  of  the  printer  to  compel  attention  to  subject- 
matter  that  would  otherwise  pass  unnoticed.  It  is  the 
imitation  in  print  of  an  obsolete  school  of  elocution,  in 
which  the  orator  was  taught  to  change  his  voice  from 
whispers  to  shrieks,  and  to  give  the  greatest  emphasis  to 


74 


Whoever  selects  brass  rules  as  cross-lines  for  the  running 
title  must  be  prepared  to  meet  unexpected  difficulties  in 
the  making  of  electrotype  plates  and  largely  increased 
expense  in  the  securing  of  uniform  presswork. 


242     $  ^uef  to  ffle  Confe00ton0 


Black-letter  in  the  running  title  should  be  always  a  face 
of  true  old  style  to  make  it  acceptable  to  the  bookish  reader. 


Illustrations  of  running  titles          267 


Chap.  VI.   PHILIP  de  Co  MINES.       833 

In  the  displayed  circular  or  advertisement,  dashes  are  com- 
mendable, but  they  are  of  doubtful  value  in  a  serious  book. 
The  eye  is  wearied  with  their  continued  monotony. 


The   Correct   STYLE        ig 


trivial  words.  The  speaker  compelled  attention,  but  he 
soon  tired  his  hearers.  This  attempt  at  display,  entirely 
proper  in  a  handbill,  advertisement,  or  tradesman's  circu- 
lar, is  not  really  needed  in  any  book.  It  may  attract,  but 
it  irritates.  Black  dashes  ordered  by  the  publisher  must 
be  inserted  as  directed,  but  the  compositor  will  make  a 
serious  mistake  if  he  inserts  them  without  order.  Italic, 
lower-case,  and  small  capitals  are  here  needlessly  combined. 


§>imon  *9o0tre  75 


The  modern  amateur  who  prefers  straight  lines  and  plain 
types  should  not  authorize  in  one  line  a  mixing  of  capitals, 
small  capitals,  italic,  and  lower-case  types  that  would  not 
be  tolerated  in  one  line  of  descriptive  matter  in  the  text. 


of  an  (gmgfiefl  4)ptutn;  (Safer     243 


Modern  designs  of  black-letter,  ornamented  or  with  marked 
eccentricities,  are  forbidden  by  publishers  of  library  books. 


268  Make-up  of  short  chapters 

The  space  to  be  allowed  for  the  sinkage  of  a  chapter 
heading,  as  well  as  for  the  width  of  blanks  above 
and  below  a  table  or  a  quoted  extract  in  the  text, 
is  fairly  indicated  by  the  general  direction  to  set 
solid  or  leaded.  Blanks  may  be  wide  in  leaded 
but  should  be  narrow  in  solid  matter. 


162      Trimalchio's    Dinner 


Lower-case  of  roman  has  some  favor  as  a  proper  selection 
for  running  titles.  The  size  selected  is  usually  larger  than 
the  type  of  the  text.  It  is  not  improved  by  hair-spacing. 


When  great  compactness  is  ordered,  a  new  chap- 
ter may  closely  follow  the  end  of  the  preceding 
chapter,  as  is  practised  in  making  up  the  Bible.  If 
a  foregoing  chapter  ends  a  few  lines  above  the  foot 
of  the  page,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  more  lines 
in  previous  pages  by  overrunning,  wider  spacing, 
and  driving  over  the  last  lines  of  paragraphs,  or 
by  a  new  re-making  up  that  slightly  increases  the 
blanks  between  the  chapters.  These  methods  will 
bring  the  end  of  the  faulty  chapter  to  the  foot  of 
the  page,  yet  they  may  make  a  new  difficulty  in  the 
compactly  set  book  of  short  chapters.  To  begin  a 
new  chapter  flush  with  the  first  text  line  of  the 
page  does  not  make  that  page  pleasing,  but  there  are 
occasions  when  this  treatment  cannot  be  avoided. 
When  this  happens,  it  is  customary  to  emphasize 


Usefulness  of  signatures  269 

the  irregularity  by  putting  one  more  blank  line 
over  the  new  chapter.1 


H5E5H5H5H5H5  ARCHIV  FUR  BUCHGEWERBE  ffiffiffiffiffiffi 

A  running  title  with  black  decorations  on  either  side  and 
with  cross-rules  above  and  below  is  thereby  made  insignifi- 
cant. This  treatment  compels  the  paging  figures  to  be  put 
in  the  foot-line,  but  consistency  requires  that  they  should 
be  obscured  with  side  decoration  of  similar  peculiarity. 
Decoration  pleases  more  when  it  is  lighter  than  letters. 

When  a  new  maker-up  has  to  continue  the  un- 
finished work  of  a  predecessor,  he  must  carefully 
examine  the  proof  and  copy  of  the  type  already 
made  up,  and  make  -sure  that  the  work  he  is  about 
to  do  is  its  proper  continuation. 

SIGNATURES 

Bookbinders  need  signatures  as  guides  to  the  or- 
derly arrangement  of  the  different  sections  of  the 

l  To  the  inexperienced  the  the  page  did  not  seem  to  require 
making  up  of  composed  type  in  the  division  of  a  cut  or  a  table, 
pages  of  uniform  length  seems  These  are  a  few  of  the  many 
simple  work.  It  would  be  sim-  annoyances  that  delay  making 
pie  if  the  copy  had  words  enough  up.  They  require  the  continual 
and  no  more,  without  head-band,  exercise  of  forethought  and  the 
synopsis,  or  initial,  to  fill  neatly  adaptation  of  means  to  ends  in 
the  first  page  of  the  chapter ;  if  many  ways  that  cannot  be  pro- 
there  were  words  enough  to  vided  for  by  any  arbitrary  rule, 
allow  that  chapter  to  end  in  the  Some  of  these  irregularities  are 
middle  of  an  even  page ;  if  the  too  difficult  for  the  maker-up ; 
last  short  line  of  a  paragraph  they  have  to  be  adjusted  by  the 
did  not  occasionally  appear  at  author,  who  often  has  to  add 
the  head  of  a  new  page ;  if  the  new  lines  or  cancel  lines  already 
gauge  that  defines  the  length  of  set  to  make  a  sightly  page. 


270       Signatures  governed  ty  sections 

book.  Paging  figures  in  the  upper  corner  of  the  leaf 
are  unhandily  placed  for  the  convenience  of  the 
gatherer,  who  needs  the  guide  at  the  foot  of  the 
leaf,  where  the  section  is  first  seized.  The  sequence 
of  guide-marks  made  by  alphabetical  letters,  or  by 
figures  following  in  numerical  order,  is  more  quickly 
seen  than  the  sequence  of  page  figures  that  have  to 
be  compared  with  the  pages  of  a  preceding  section. 

American  printers  prefer  arabic  figures  for  signa- 
tures, for  they  can  be  protracted  indefinitely  for 
the  largest  book,  but  British  printers  prefer  alpha- 
betical letters,  and  add  to  them  a  new  specifying 
figure  when  the  letter  has  to  be  repeated.  Follow- 
ing the  usage  of  earty  printers,  the  letters  J,  V,  and 
W  are  never  selected  for  signatures.1 

The  number  of  pages  allowed  for  a  section  and 
its  signature  is  governed  largely  by  the  thickness 
of  the  paper  to  be  printed:  for  very  thick  paper, 
eight  pages;  for  the  ordinary  thickness  of  book 
paper,  sixteen  pages.  The  double  twelves  of  twenty- 
four  pages  can  be  used  with  safety  only  on  very  thin 
paper,  and  their  insettings  of  eight  pages  (usually 
a  cut-off,  separately  folded)  take  a  star  after  each 
repeated  signature.  Sheets  of  four  pages  folio  and 
of  twelve  pages  are  selected  only  when  the  form 

1  In  many  old  books  the  sig-  seventh,  with  intent  to  show  to 

nature  of  a  section  of  sixteen  the  folder  the  proper  position  of 

pages  was  repeated  on  some  of  consecutive  leaves.    These  ad- 

the  following  leaves.    B  was  the  ditional  signatures  for  the  inner 

proper  signature  for  the  first  leaves  of  a  section,  inserted  as 

text  page,  B  i  for  the  third  page,  helps  to  unpractised  folders,  are 

B  ii  for  the  fifth,  B  iii  for  the  no  longer  used. 


Unwise  neglect  of  signatures          271 

has  to  be  printed  upon  a  paper  of  peculiar  quality, 
size,  or  shape.  Publishers  and  bookbinders  prefer 
sheets  of  eight  or  sixteen  pages,  for  they  permit 
neater  folding  and  sewing.  Too  many  pages  in  a 
section  of  very  thick  paper  create  wrinkles  in  the 
central  folds,  and  too  few  pages  in  a  section  of  thin 
paper  make  the  back  bunchy  with  thread. 

Every  book  of  more  than  one  sheet  has  a  signa- 
ture-mark in  the  foot-line  of  each  completed  section. 
If  the  section  has  an  inset,  cut  off  and  separately 
folded  and  inserted,  this  cut-off  inset  should  take 
the  same  figure  as  its  outset,  with  the  addition  of 
a  star,  thus:  outset  2,  inset  2*.  When  the  book 
makes  two  or  more  volumes,  the  number  of  the 
volume  must  be  specified  in  the  signature-line,  as 
in  Vol.  II,  2.  The  numerals  defining  the  volume 
should  be  in  capitals,1  so  that  they  may  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  arabic  figures  of  the  signature. 

When  page  figures  and  signatures  cannot  be  used, 
and  when  the  text  lines  are  of  uneven  length,  as  in 
poetry,  and  blanks  are  of  uneven  height,  as  in  forms 
of  prefatory  matter,  all  the  customary  guides  for 
exact  folding  have  been  removed. 

i  One  of  the  new  fashions  in  binder.     It  is  admitted  that  the 

book-making  is  the  neglect  of  a  appearance  of  the  page  is  not 

signature-mark  in  the  foot-line,  improved  by  the  signature  in  the 

Some  authors  order  it  in  a  sepa-  foot-line,  but  its  entire  omission 

rate  line  about  an  inch  below  the  is  dangerous,  especially  so  when 

regulation  foot-line ;  others  omit  paging  figures  also  have  been 

it  entirely,  but   this   omission  omitted.    More    than  ordinary 

makes  added  expense  and  gives  care  will  have  to  be  given  to  the 

needless  trouble  to  all  the  work-  gathering  of  the  signatures  to 

men  ftom  compositor  to  book-  prevent  disorderly  arrangement. 


272         Table  of  signatures  and  folios 


Num- 
bered 
signa- 
tures 

Folio 
of 
4  pages 

Quarto 
of 
8  pages 

Twelves 
of 
12  pages 

Octavo 
of 
16  pages 

Double 
twelves, 
24  pages 

Let- 
tered 
signa- 
tures 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

A 

2 

5 

8 

13 

17 

25 

B 

3 

9 

17 

25 

33 

49 

C 

4 

13 

25 

37 

49 

73 

D 

5 

17 

.   33 

49 

65 

97 

E 

6 

21 

41 

61 

81 

121 

F 

7 

25 

49 

73 

97 

145 

G 

8 

29 

57 

85 

113 

169 

H 

9 

33 

65 

97 

129 

193 

I 

10 

37 

73 

109 

145 

217 

K 

11 

41 

81 

121 

161 

241 

L 

12 

45 

89 

133 

177 

265 

M 

13 

49 

97 

145 

193 

289 

N 

14 

53 

105 

157 

209 

313 

O 

15 

57 

113 

169 

225 

337 

P 

16 

61 

121 

181 

241 

361 

Q 

17 

65 

129 

193 

257 

385 

E 

18 

69 

137 

205 

273 

409 

S 

19 

73 

145 

217 

289 

433 

T 

20 

77 

153 

229 

305 

457 

U 

21 

81 

161 

241 

321 

481 

X 

22 

85 

169 

253 

337 

505 

Y 

23 

89 

177 

265 

353 

529 

Z 

24 

93 

185 

277 

369 

553 

2  A 

25 

97 

193 

289 

385 

577 

2B 

26 

101 

201 

301 

401 

601 

2C 

27 

105 

209 

313 

417 

625 

2D 

28 

109 

217 

325 

433 

649 

2E 

29 

113 

225 

337 

449 

673 

2F 

30 

117 

233 

349 

465 

697 

2G 

31 

121 

241 

361 

481 

721 

2H 

32 

125 

249 

373 

497 

745 

2  I 

Table  of  signatures  and  folios         273 


Num- 
bered 
signa- 
tures 

Folio 
of 
4  pages 

Quarto 
of 
8  pages 

Twelves 
of 
12  pages 

Octavo 
of 
16  pages 

Double 
twelves, 
24  pages 

Let- 
tered 
signa- 
tures 

33 

129 

257 

385 

513 

769 

2K 

34 

133 

265 

397 

529 

793 

2L 

35 

137 

273 

409 

545 

817 

2M 

36 

141 

281 

421 

561 

841 

2N 

37 

145 

289 

433 

577 

865 

20 

38 

149 

297 

445 

593 

889 

2P 

39 

153 

305 

457 

609 

913 

2Q. 

40 

157 

313 

469 

625 

937 

2R 

41 

161 

321 

481 

641 

961 

2S 

42 

165 

329 

493 

657 

985 

2T 

43 

169 

337 

505 

673 

1009 

2U 

44 

173 

345 

517 

689 

1033 

2X 

45 

177 

353 

529 

705 

1057 

2Y 

46 

181 

361 

541 

721 

1081 

2Z 

47 

185 

369 

553 

737 

1105 

3A 

48 

189 

377 

565 

753 

1129 

3B 

49 

193 

385 

577 

769 

1153 

3C 

50 

197 

393 

589 

785 

1177 

3D 

51 

201 

401 

601 

801 

1201 

3E 

52 

205 

409 

613 

817 

1225 

3F 

53 

209 

417 

625 

834 

1249 

3G 

54 

213 

425 

637 

849 

1273 

3H 

55 

217 

433 

649 

865 

1297 

31 

56 

221 

441 

661 

881 

1321 

3K 

57 

225 

449 

673 

897 

1345 

3L 

58 

229 

457 

685 

913 

1369 

3M 

59 

233 

465 

697 

929 

1393 

3N 

60 

237 

473 

709 

945 

1417 

30 

61 

241 

481 

721 

961 

1441 

3P 

62 

245 

489 

733 

977 

1465 

3Q 

63 

249 

497 

745 

993 

1489 

3R 

64 

253 

505 

757 

1009 

1513 

3S 

18 


274          Pages  should  be  symmetrical 

New  guides  for  exact  folding  can  be  produced  by 
inserting  in  the  centre  of  the  gutters  (as  between 
pages  1-8  on  the  half-sheet  of  octavo,  and  in  the 
head-bolts  between  pages  1-4  on  the  same  sheet) 
a  short  bit  of  hair-line  rule,  which  will  definitely 
mark  the  places  where  the  sheet  should  be  creased 
for  folding.  The  printed  guides  so  made  will  be 
hidden  in  the  book  by  sewing,  or  will  be  cut  off  at 
the  head  or  front  by  trimming.1 

When  the  number  of  pages  for  a  full  form  has 
been  made  up,  the  maker-up  should  plainly  mark 
on  the  proof  and  on  the  copy  before  him  the  last 
word  in  the  form.  This  mark  is  needed  by  the 
reader  and  by  the  maker-up  who  may  follow  him. 

A  table  of  signatures  is  of  some  service  to  the 
maker-up,  but  it  must  not  be  trusted  unthinkingly. 
The  book  made  up,  for  the  greater  part,  in  sections 
of  sixteen  pages  may  have  here  and  there  sections 
of  more  or  less  pages,  so  made  by  printing  one  sec- 
tion out  of  order,  or  by  the  use  of  a  different  kind 
of  paper  for  maps  or  illustrations. 

When  the  imposing-stone  is  free,  the  maker-up 
puts  his  made-up  pages  thereon  in  proper  position 
for  the  stoneman.  If  the  stone  is  not  free,  he  puts 
them  in  a  wrapper  of  stout  waste  paper,  and  stows 
them  in  piles  as  may  be  directed  by  the  foreman. 

A  page  of  text  is  trim,  square,  and  symmetrical 
when  its  first  and  last  lines  are  of  full  width.  The 
short  line  that  ends  a  paragraph  is  tolerated  at  the 

1  See  Scheme  19  on  page  353. 


Treatment  of  hindrances  275 

foot  of  a  page,  but  it  is  a  blemish  when  it  appears 
as  the  first  text  line  of  a  new  page.  Even  the  be- 
ginning of  a  new  paragraph,  with  its  slight  inden- 
tion of  one  em,  at  the  foot  or  the  head  of  a  page  is 
rated  as  a  fault  by  the  critical.  As  the  maker-up 
cannot  add  or  cancel  words  or  transpose  lines,  it  is 
impossible  to  avoid  these  faults  in  some  measures 
of  poetry,  in  short  dialogue  matter,  or  in  any  kind 
of  composition  that  has  to  be  made  up  in  haste. 
Yet  this  fault  can  be  amended  in  some  kinds  of 
composition,  when  time  is  allowed,  by  the  obser- 
vance of  the  following  methods. 

To  prevent  a  short  line  at  the  head  of  a  page, 
these  expedients  are  often  adopted:  (1)  Take  out 
a  line  from  the  space  allowed  for  the  chapter  head, 
and  re-make  up  all  the  following  pages  until  the 
objectionable  line  falls  at  the  foot  of  the  page. 
This  is  a  tedious  method,  and  it  may  cause  a  simi- 
lar bad  break  upon  another  page.  (2)  Pick  out  a 
paragraph  in  any  preceding  page  that  could  be 
spaced  thinner,  so  as  to  make  it  one  line  less,  and 
thereby  provide  the  room  for  a  new  line.  (3)  Re- 
verse the  process:  overrun  a  previous  paragraph 
with  wide  spacing  that  will  make  a  new  line,  and 
so  drive  over  the  objectionable  short  line  and  make 
it  the  second  line  on  a  new  -page.  (4)  Make  the 
page  a  line  short  or  long ;  but  the  two  pages  that 
face  each  other  should  be  treated  in  the  same  man- 
ner. (5)  Ask  the  author  to  add  or  cancel  a  word 
in  any  paragraph  that  will  prevent  the  short  line. 


276         Management  of  irregularities 

In  the  strict  reprint  the  last  expedient  is  impossible. 
When  it  is  clearly  unavoidable,  as  it  is  in  some 
forms  of  composition,  as  in  an  ode  or  in  short  dia- 
logue matter,  no  attempt  should  be  made  at  change, 
for  the  apparent  fault  carries  with  it  its  proper 
apology. 

Another  alleged  fault  in  make-up  is  a  divided 
word  broken  with  a  hyphen  on  the  first  or  last  line 
of  a  page  or  a  paragraph.  To  try  to  correct  this 
fault  by  thin  or  wide  spacing  will  make  a  much 
greater  fault.  In  many  lines  it  is  impossible  to  do 
so.  It  can  be  corrected  wisely  by  the  author  only, 
who  can  add,  cancel,  or  substitute  words  that  will 
prevent  the  use  of  the  hyphen,  but  there  are  few 
authors  who  will  take  this  trouble. 

NOTES   AND   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Pages  that  must  contain  illustrations,  long  notes, 
or  tables  of  irregular  size  present  many  difficulties. 
Author  and  reader  prefer  that  these  additions  shall 
be  on  the  same  page  as  the  explanatory  text,  or  at 
least  on  a  page  facing  it.  When  the  page  is  small 
and  the  note  is  large,  the  note  and  the  text  inter- 
fere, and  the  maker-up  is  often  puzzled  to  decide 
the  problem  of  precedence.  The  last  line  of  a 
regularly  made-up  page  may  contain  the  reference- 
mark  for  a  long  note,  which  cannot  appear  on  that 
page,  and  must  overrun  on  two  or  more  pages. 
When  obstacles  like  these  are  foreseen,  it  is  the 


Placing  of  foot-notes  277 

custom  to  send  to  the  author  clean  galley  proofs, 
marked  to  show  the  limits  of  each  page  and  the 
obstructiveness  of  the  note  or  illustration.  It  is 
to  be  expected  that  the  author  will  add  new  matter 
to  close  a  gap,  or  cancel  matter  already  set  to  pre- 
vent an  unsightly  break.  He  is  expected  to  cut  up 
the  proofs  and  paste  them  in  the  order  he  prefers 
on  the  prepared  paper  within  the  prescribed  lines. 
He  may  not  be  entirely  successful,  but  he  can  give 
a  clue  to  orderly  treatment  that  will  be  helpful. 

When  the  irregularities  in  the  text  are  tables  or 
notes  of  full  width,  the  new  arrangement  desired 
can  be  made  by  the  author  j  but  when  these  irregu- 
larities are  illustrations  of  small  size  and  odd  shape 
that  compel  an  overrunning  of  type  that  must  be 
led  down  the  side,  the  author's  calculations  of  the 
space  to  be  occupied  by  the  type  are  seldom  correct. 
His  order  for  a  make-up  of  matter  is  unavoidably 
tentative  and  experimental.  The  maker-up  is  often 
obliged  to  make  up  the  matter  in  a  way  differing 
from  that  of  the  author  before  it  is  finally  approved. 

Foot-notes  are  often  more  annoying  than  cuts  or 
tables.  They  must  begin  at  the  foot  of  the  page 
that  contains  in  its  text  the  mark  of  reference,  but 
they  may  overrun  two  or  three  pages.  They  can 
be  separated  from  the  text  by  a  white  line,  or  by 
a  short  or  long  brass  rule.  The  white  line  is  to  be 
preferred,  for  a  hair-line  rule  of  any  length  is  ob- 
jectionable because  it  is  seldom  properly  electro- 
typed  and  printed  with  uniform  thickness  of  face. 


278  Foot-notes  that  overrun 

When  the  width  will  permit  it,  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  page  will  be  improved  by  setting  the 
notes  in  half -measure  without  the  dividing  brass 
rule.  Each  note  should  begin  with  the  repetition  of 
the  reference-mark  in  the  text.  The  marks  fur- 
nished with  the  font  of  type  are  ungainly,  but  the 
superior  figures  frequently  used  in  their  stead  may 
be  so  small  as  to  be  objectionably  indistinct. 

Long  notes  that  overrun  one  page  and  appear  on 
more  than  two  pages  can  be  avoided  by  giving  up 
the  page  that  follows  the  reference  entirely  to  the 
note,  but  this  treatment  should  not  be  attempted 
without  the  permission  of  the  author. 

Foot-notes  should  follow  one  another  in  the  order 
indicated  by  the  references  in  the  text.  A  third  or 
fourth  note  following  a  very  long  first  note,  all  re- 
ferred to  on  one  page,  can  seldom  be  inserted  on  that 
page.  The  first  line  of  the  first  note  must  be  kept 
on  that  page,  but  its  overrun  must  be  transferred 
to  the  foot  of  the  next  page,  and  this  transferred 
matter  should  be  placed  over  the  regular  notes  for 
the  succeeding  page,  and  be  separated  from  them 
by  a  thin  white  line.  This  unfortunate  alternative 
is  a  clumsy  procedure,  but  it  can  be  avoided  when 
the  author  rewrites  or  rearranges  the  text  and  notes 
so  that  they  can  be  kept  near  one  another.1 

In  a  page  of  two  or  more  columns  the  notes  of 

1  Prosper  March  and's  History  foot  of  the  six  following  pages, 

of  the  Origin  of  Printing  (Paris,  and  that  is  further  elucidated  by 

1740)  has  in  its  first  chapter  one  thirty-four  subnotes  set  in  a  dif- 

overrun  note  that  appears  at  the  f  erent  measure. 


Side-notes  and  abbreviations          279 

a  column  may  be  kept  at  its  foot,  but  when  there 
are  many  notes  in  the  last  column  that  interfere 
with  the  placing  of  a  cut  or  table  on  the  page,  the 
notes  may  be  put  in  the  first  column. 

A  side-note  in  the  margin  should  begin  opposite 
the  first  line  of  the  paragraph  referred  to.  When 
these  notes  are  too  many  and  too  long,  superior 
figures  or  letters  have  to  be  used  to  indicate  the 
relation  of  text  to  note.  When  the  margin  will 
allow,  the  side-note  should  be  at  a  visible  distance 
from  the  text. 

Side-notes  are  usually  set  in  type  three  or  four 
sizes  smaller  than  that  of  the  text.  Four  picas  is 
a  favorite  width  of  measure  for  side-notes,  but 
when  notes  are  frequent  and  margins  are  wide, 
the  measure  may  be  five  or  more  picas.  A  side-note 
should  not  be  indented,  nor  should  its  letters  be  hair- 
spaced  or  its  words  wide-spaced  to  make  full  lines. 
Composition  should  be  even  at  the  beginning  of 
every  line,  but  may  be  irregular  at  its  ending,  both 
on  the  odd  and  the  even  pages. 

Abbreviations  are  tolerated  in  side-notes  that 
are  not  permissible  in  the  text,  but  capitals  should 
not  be  used  to  give  distinction  to  the  initials  of 
important  words  that  are  not  proper  nouns. 

The  names  of  books,  papers,  and  documents  cited 
in  the  text  often  appear  in  side-notes  in  italic. 
This  is  not  a  wise  selection,  for  italic  letters  have 
many  kerns,  and  the  kerns  may  break  off  in  this 
exposed  position. 


280          Legend  lines  of  illustrations 

Cut-in  notes  are  placed  at  the  extreme  end  of  the 
first,  second,  or  third  line  of  the  paragraph.  When 
they  begin  on  the  first  line  they  give  an  unneces- 
sary raggedness  to  the  outline  of  the  page.  The 
width  and  height  of  a  cut-in  note  must  vary  with 
the  fulness  of  the  note,  but  the  white  space  about 
each  one  should  seem  the  same  in  all  notes. 

To  arrest  the  eye,  the  cut-in  notes  of  educational 
works  are  sometimes  set  in  small  sizes  of  antique 
or  condensed  title.  The  bolder  face  of  these  types 
produces  the  desired  distinction,  but  a  critic  may 
say  that  the  change  spots  the  page  unpleasantly. 
For  general  use  the  ordinary  cut  of  roman  lower- 
case of  small  body  will  prove  most  acceptable. 

One  of  the  features  of  a  profusely  annotated  old 
book  was  the  inclosing  of  its  text  with  notes  on 
the  top  and  side  as  well  as  at  the  foot,  but  this  can 
be  done  with  satisfaction  only  when  the  copy  has 
been  very  carefully  prepared  by  the  author. 

The  legend  line  or  verbal  description  of  a  large 
illustration,  often  set  by  the  maker-up,  can  be  in 
many  styles.  An  old  method  set  the  legend  in 
small  capitals  of  the  text  type  (often  too  large  for 
the  words)  in  one  or  two  lines.  When  small  capi- 
tals of  a  smaller  body  were  selected,  the  legend  so 
treated  became  indistinct.  When  the  legend  line 
is  followed  by  a  more  particular  description,  as  in 
the  numbers  or  letters  that  refer  to  anatomical 
illustrations,  this  minuter  description  may  be  ar- 
ranged in  columns  and  in  a  very  small  size  of  roman 


Legends  for  full-page  illustrations      281 

lower-case.  A  very  long  legend  of  two  or  three  lines 
of  small  capitals  may  be  indented  in  half -diamond 
fashion.  When  it  exceeds  three  lines  hanging  in- 
dention is  a  better  choice. 

A  more  approved  style  for  the  legend  line  is  plain 
roman  lower-case  of  small  size  (about  three  sizes 
smaller  than  that  of  the  text  type),  with  capitals 
only  for  proper  names  and  for  the  first  letter  of 
the  line.  To  capitalize  its  apparently  important 
words  is  to  invite  from  author  or  publisher  repeated 
changes  of  these  capitals.  Roman  lower-case  should 
be  clear  enough  for  the  legend  line  without  trying 
to  aid  that  clearness  by  means  of  petty  display  of 
capital  letters.  It  is  largely  to  prevent  capricious 
alteration  in  capitals  that  the  printer  prefers  small 
capital  letters  for  this  descriptive  line. 

Italic  lower-case,  gothic,  and  thin-faced  antique, 
in  capitals  or  lower-case,  are  occasionally  selected 
to  give  to  the  legend  line  increased  distinction,  but 
all  types  of  display  are  of  doubtful  propriety  in  a 
library  book.  The  significance  of  the  illustration 
cannot  be  improved,  but  it  can  be  damaged,  with 
black  or  eccentric  lettering.  The  reader  who  does 
not  fully  comprehend  it  with  an  unobtrusive  legend 
line  will  not  be  aided  by  bold  type. 

Illustrations  that  fill  an  entire  page  seldom  need 
to  be  described  in  bold  types.  In  sumptuous  books 
the  legend  of  a  full-page  illustration  is  often  printed 
on  a  separate  leaf  of  transparent  paper,  to  be  at- 
tached facing  the  illustration,  for  there  are  many 


282        Blank  space  about  illustrations 

engravers  who  protest  against  the  insertion  of  any 
type-work  below  the  cut.1 

Legend  lines  are  usually  centred,  but  when  the 
illustration  is  of  irregular  shape,  its  legend  may  be 
placed  in  a  lower  corner  within  any  vacancy  that 
promises  a  proper  relief  of  white  space,  and  the 
plate  may  be  slotted  or  mortised  for  its  insertion. 
To  prevent  wear  of  type  in  this  exposed  position, 
the  legend  line  in  very  small  type  is  sometimes  put 
over  a  cut  that  must  appear  at  the  end  of  a  page. 

Over  a  cut  at  the  head  of  a  page  the  customary 
running  title  of  that  page  should  be  suppressed. 

The  blank  space  to  be  allowed  above,  below,  or  by 
the  side  of  cuts  or  narrow  tables  must  be  governed 
by  the  general  openness  or  closeness  of  the  compo- 
sition. For  double-leaded  type  the  blank  should  be 
not  less  than  a  great  primer  wide  j  for  very  open  com- 
position two  or  even  three  picas  may  be  used ;  for 
solid  composition  about  one  pica.  An  illustration  is 
damaged  in  appearance  when  it  crowds  the  type 
of  the  text.2 

When  the  cut  is  very  small  and  compactness  is 

1  Although  illustrators  protest  to  composition  in  black-letter, 
against  explanatory  legends  in  ostensibly  in  the  Morris  style, 
type  at  the  foot  or  head  of  a  full-  which  favors  the  jamming  of 
page  cut  as  damaging  to  their  type  close  to  the  initial  and  even 
work,  they  see  no  impropriety  in  against  a  broad  engraved  bor- 
affixing  to  the  half -page  illustra-  der ;  but  this  contraction  of  the 
tions  of  articles  in  magazines  de-  relief  of  a  needed  white  space 
scriptive  lines  in  letters  of  large  should  never  be  allowed  in  any 
size  and  uncouth  form  that  be-  composition  of  roman  type  that 
little  the  cut  as  well  as  the  types,  always  needs  much  openness  for 

2  These  remarks  do  not  apply  its  fair  presentation. 


Treatment  of  projecting  matter         283 

desired,  type  may  be  overrun  and  arranged  on  one 
or  both  sides,  but  the  setting  of  type  in  measures 
too  narrow  should  be  avoided,  as  in  any  blank  less 
than  eight  em  quadrats  of  the  text  type,  in  which 
uneven  spacing  cannot  be  prevented. 

Illustrations  of  irregular  shape  should  be  blocked 
on  metal  bodies  and  notched  by  the  automatic  ma- 
chine recently  invented  for  this  purpose  j  if  blocked 
on  wood  and  notched  by  the  hand-saw  and  file,  the 
wood  may  warp,  the  notches  will  be  out  of  square, 
and  the  types  inserted  in  them  are  liable  to  work 
off  their  feet. 

One  of  the  modern  methods  of  make-up  is  the 
placing  of  very  small  cuts  or  illustrations  entirely 
in  the  outer  margin,  where  they  will  not  obstruct 
the  text. 

When  it  is  ordered  that  two  or  more  illustrations 
shall  project  beyond  the  regular  measure  of  the 
page  in  the  margin  of  a  letterpress  form,  all  the 
pages  of  that  form  should  be  made  up  to  the  full 
width  of  the  widest  page.  This  can  be  done  to  best 
advantage  on  the  make-up  galley.  A  centring  in 
exact  position  of  pages  of  different  width  can  never 
be  done  quickly,  and  rarely  ever  accurately,  upon 
the  stone. 

If  the  pages  are  to  be  electrotyped,  the  blank 
spaces  above  and  below  an  illustration  or  a  table 
(and  indeed  all  the  blanks)  should  be  filled  with 
bearers  to  insure  the  making  of  a  good  mould.1 

i  See  pages  73  and  74  of  this  book. 


284       Treatment  of  irregular  illustrations 

Illustrations  of  irregular  shape  that  require  types 
to  be  rearranged  about  them  necessarily  compel 
the  overrunning  of  the  composition.  This  process 
is  always  more  tedious  than  the  original  composi- 
tion, for  the  lines  so  treated  must  differ  in  length 
and  may  have  to  be  repeatedly  changed  to  prevent 
bad  division  or  uneven  spacing.  Before  overrun- 
ning is  attempted,  all  alterations  desired  in  the 
text  should  be  made  on  the  galley  proof.  To  add 
or  cancel  words  after  the  type  has  been  fitted  to 
the  illustration  and  made  up  in  pages-will  cost  more 
than  the  original  composition.  To  preserve  decent 
uniformity  in  spacing,  it  may  be  necessary,  even 
after  overrunning,  to  ask  the  author  to  change  one 
word  for  another  to  make  a  line  longer  or  shorter. 

The  position  of  illustrations  on  a  page  is  a  ques- 
tion of  taste  usually  determined  by  the  author,  but 
there  is  a  general  agreement  as  to  the  propriety  of 
the  following  rules : 

A  very  small  and  narrow  cut  may  be  put  in  the 
centre  of  the  measure,  with  the  type  rearranged 
on  each  side,  but  the  type  so  rearranged  should  be 
treated  as  two  distinct  columns,  to  read  down  the 
page  and  not  across  the  cut. 

If  the  cut  is  wider  and  will  not  permit  decent 
spacing  on  each  side,  put  the  cut  at  one  end  of  the 
measure,  so  that  the  type  will  be  on  one  side  only. 

Two  or  more  cuts,  not  dependent  on  one  another, 
appearing  on  the  same  page  or  on  pages  that  face, 
should  be  kept  far  apart. 


Position  of  cuts  on  the  page  285 

When  it  can  be  avoided,  an  illustration  should  be 
put  011  the  page  so  that  it  will  not  back  another  illus- 
tration on  the  following  page,  for  this  backing  of 
two  cuts  against  each  other  increases  the  labor  of 
press  work  and  may  produce  a  "set-off"  of  black 
ink  where  it  is  not  needed,  to  the  damage  of  each 
illustration. 

The  cut  that  is  not  wide  enough  to  fill  the  mea- 
sure, but  that  is  too  wide  to  have  type  put  on  one 
side,  may  have  its  appearance  improved  by  sur- 
rounding it  with  a  rule  border.  A  rule  with  face 
about  one  point  thick  is  better  than  the  hair-line 
rule,  especially  if  it  is  intended  for  a  red-ink  line. 
Parallel  or  concentric  rules,  one  for  black  and  one 
for  red  ink,  are  finical  niceties ;  it  is  difficult  to 
print  them  on  a  large  sheet  in  exact  parallel. 

Two  illustrations  of  the  same  size  that  have 
been  prepared  as  mates  to  face  one  another  on 
opposing  pages  should  be  made  up  to  face  with 
exactness.  Cuts  that  are  not  mates  can  be  placed 
at  the  head  or  side  or  foot  of  the  page,  to  avoid  the 
appearance  of  monotonous  uniformity. 

When  a  cut  of  full  width  is  put  at  the  head  of 
the  page,  the  running  title  and  the  folio  figures 
should  be  suppressed,  and  the  folio  of  the  page 
may  be  put  in  small  figures  in  the  foot-line. 

When  a  table  or  cut  of  full  broad  measure  must 
appear  in  a  page  of  two  or  more  columns,  each 
column  of  type  must  be  made  up  to  read  continu- 
ously from  the  head  to  the  foot  of  the  page,  and 


286  Parallels  in  columns 

without  regard  to  the  separation  made  by  the  cut 
or  table. 

In  poetry,  lines  that  rime  should  not  be  put  on 
separate  pages.  Quoted  lines  of  poetry  should  not 
begin  a  page  when  it  can  be  avoided. 

When  the  gauge  shows  that  the  chapter  will  end 
with  two  or  three  lines  only  on  the  last  page,  and 
the  maker-up  has  been  ordered  not  to  lengthen 
previous  pages,  he  must  ask  the  author  to  add  more 
lines  to  give  a  decent  fulness  to  that  page ;  or  he 
may  ask  him  to  cancel  some  lines  on  previous  pages, 
so  that  the  chapter  will  have  a  neater  ending.1 

A  long  quotation  in  a  foreign  language  with  its 
translation  in  a  parallel  column  should  have  the 
number  of  words  for  each  column  carefully  counted. 
When  the  words  are  unequal  in  number,  the  col- 
umns should  be  made  of  unequal  width,  so  that  the 
two  columns  will  end  on  or  near  the  same  parallel. 
If  this  treatment  is  not  possible,  the  column  that 
contains  the  excess  matter  may  be  put  in  broad 
measure  after  it  passes  the  parallel.  This  is  trouble- 
some, but  it  will  prevent  the  unsightly  appearance 
of  one  column  huddled  by  the  side  of  its  mate  that 
has  a  long  gap  of  unbalanced  white  space. 

l  To  an  impatient  author  the  he  has  done.    Yet  forethought 

time  taken  for  making  up  the  will  prevent  some  wasted  labor, 

illustrated  pages  of  a  chapter  The  type,cuts,  and  notes  for  each 

often  seems  unreasonably  long,  page  should  be  cut  out  of  an 

but  it  is  unavoidable,  for  illus-  extra  proof  and  be  arranged  in 

trated  pages  can  be  made  up  by  page  form  on  the  pages  of  a 

one  person  only,  and  he  may  dummy    before    the    practical 

have  to  undo  repeatedly  what  work  of  making  up  is  attempted. 


Position  of  full-page  illustrations      287 

The  full-page  illustration  that  occupies  the  broad 
way  of  the  page  often  has  its  legend  or  descriptive 
line  near  the  gutter  or  back  margin.  It  is  expected 
that  the  reader  will  turn  the  book  half-way  around, 
from  right  to  left  for  the  odd  page  and  vice  versa  for 
the  even  page.  This  arrangement  must  be  varied 
when  two  facing  cuts  are  intended  to  explain  or  sup- 
plement each  other.  They  should  face  one  way,  so 
that  they  can  be  read  from  the  same  position. 

The  adjustment  of  blanks  before  and  after  ex- 
tracts, cuts,  and  regular  or  irregular  subdivisions 
of  the  text  is  another  duty  that  calls  for  nice  dis- 
cretion. These  blanks  may  be  of  irregular  width, 
—the  more  important  divisions  separated  by  wide, 
and  minor  divisions  by  narrow  blanks,— but  the 
blanks  assigned  to  each  class  should  be  of  uniform 
width  as  far  as  is  possible.  It  is  difficult  to  main- 
tain this  appearance  of  uniformity  when  blanks 
have  to  be  increased  to  drive  out,  or  diminished 
to  take  in,  an  extract,  subheading,  or  quotation  that 
comes  at  the  head  of  the  page.  In  this  as  in  other 
cases,  the  best  help  is  to  be  had  from  the  author, 
who  should  be  asked  to  change  words  or  lines  that 
interfere  with  orderly  arrangement. 

When  a  large  piece  of  matter,  as  in  a  long  motto 
or  quotation  of  importance,  has  to  be  set  in  a  nar- 
rowed measure,  the  appearance  of  the  composition 
will  be  improved  if  all  the  lines  are  made  full,  with- 
out indention  in  first  line  and  without  break  of 
white  in  last  line.  It  will  be  necessary  to  overrun 


288       Management  of  dividing  dashes 

the  matter  repeatedly  in  different  measures  before 
this  can  be  done  properly. 

When  a  dash  is  used  for  a  subdivision,  to  make 
that  dash  seem  in  the  centre,  one  or  more  added 
leads  must  be  put  below  the  dash.  The  shoulder 
of  the  last  lower-case  text  line  must  be  reckoned 
in  blanking-out  as  one  lead  or  more. 

Type  for  the  pages  of  a  book  should  not  be 
made  up  while  it  is  wet  or  even  damp.  The  wood- 
blocking  of  electrotype  illustrations,  and  even  the 
wood  furniture  that  meets  wet  type,  will  be  swelled 
by  contact  with  moisture. 

The  exact  placing  in  an  open  page  of  one  or  more 
lines  of  type  selected  for  red  ink  upon  a  page  in 
two  colors  will  be  made  easier  by  putting  a  clean 
proof,  on  thin  paper,  of  the  entire  page  face  down- 
ward on  the  make-up  galley.  The  maker -up  can 
then  see  the  proper  position  of  the  red -ink  lines. 
If  this  color  page  is  made  up  solid,  and  of  the  same 
length  as  the  page  of  black,  avoiding  a  too  free 
use  of  leads  that  yield  under  pressure,  the  press- 
man will  be  aided  in  making  register. 

It  is  not  practicable  to  give  suggestions  for  every 
peculiarity  that  may  present  itself,  for  make-up  is 
a  study  without  end.  The  workmanship  of  well- 
printed  books  should  be  critically  examined  for  a 
study  of  the  best  methods. 


•IOMAS    MACKELLAR 


VIII 


STONE-WORK 

Stones  and  chases  .  .  .  Adjusting  margins  .  .  .  Locking  up 
Taking  proofs  .  .  .  Corrections  .  .  .  Clearing  away 


NE  of  the  most  conspicuous 
pieces  in  the  composing-room 
is  the  imposing-stone,  a  thick, 
smooth  slab  of  hard  marble, 
bonded  with  an  iron  tire,  or 
bedded  on  plaster  in  a  frame 
of  oak  wood.  It  is  used  as  a 
table  for  making  up  newspaper  forms  that  have  to 
be  printed  on  flat-bed  presses,  for  adjusting  book 
margins,  and  for  locking  up  and  correcting  previ- 
ously made-up  pages  of  books  or  jobs.  The  space 
unused  below  the  stone  is  usually  fitted  up  with 
drawers  for  the  stowage  of  furniture,  or  with  racks 
for  chases.  Stones  can  be  had  of  supply  houses  in 
many  sizes,  from  18  X  23  inches  to  38  X  96  inches. 


19 


289 


290     Imposing-stone  and  appurtenances 

The  larger  sizes,  which  are  weighty  and  liable  to 
be  broken  or  gouged  by  shooting-sticks,  have  been 
supplanted  in  many  houses  by  tables  of  iron,  that 
are  of  truer  surface  and  every  way  stronger.  The 
best  iron  tables  have  the  edge  rabbeted  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  ordinary  brass  galley,  so  made  to  give 
to  the  galley  a  needed  rest  when  pages  on  the  slice 
galley  are  launched  upon  the  surface  of  the  iron. 


Imposing-stone  with  drawers  and  chase-rack. 

The  chase  is  a  square  iron  frame  in  which  com- 
posed type  is  locked  up  and  kept  secure,  so  that  it 
can  be  lifted  from  the  stone  and  carried  to  the 
press.  It  is  made  of  cast-  or  wrought-iron,  to  suit 
the  construction  of  a  printing-machine  or  the  shape 
of  a  form.  The  cast-iron  chase  is  cheaper,  but  it  is 


Chases  of  different  styles  291 

relatively  weak,  and  serviceable  for  small  jobs  only. 
Its  greatest  defect  is  incomplete  squareness.  The 
stereotype  or  electrotype  chase,  usually  of  cast-iron, 
is  planed  and  squared  to  a  true  right  angle  on  one 
of  its  inner  corners.  The  cross  X  marked  in  one 
corner  indicates  the  corner  against  which  the  head 
and  one  side  of  the  page  should  be  laid. 

Wrought-iron  chases  are  sometimes  selected  for 
large  and  light  forms.  When  the  chase  is  a  plain 
iron  frame  without  cross-bars  or  dovetailed  slots 
for  the  bars,  it  is  known  as  a  skeleton  chase.  This 
serves  fairly  well  for  posters  that  have  much  wood 
type,  for  patent  blocks  and  open  forms,  but  it  is 
not  serviceable  for  any  large  form  of  great  weight. 
Forms  of  four  hundred  pounds  are  not  uncommon 
in  newspaper  work,  but  they  have  to  be  handled  at 
great  risk.  When  tightly  locked  up,  the  heavy  form 
sags  in  the  centre,1  and  the  chase  bends  outward  on 
one  side,  putting  the  form  more  or  less  out  of  square. 
When  two  very  large  pages  have  to  be  printed 
together  (as  is  customary  in  the  ordinary  weekly 
newspaper),  that  are  too  heavy  to  be  made  properly 

1  It  is  difficult  and  sometimes  the  chase.  The  space  at  each  end 

impossible  to  lift  from  the  stone  and  between  the  board  and  the 

large  and  heavy  forms  of  type  chase  should  be  tightly  filled  up 

that  have  not  been  strengthened  before  lifting  the   form.     The 

with  cross-bars  in  the   chase,  [face  of  the]  type  should  be  pro- 

In  his  Hints  on  Imposition  (page  tected  with  soft  paper."    I  have 

91),  Williams  recommends  that  never  tried  this  expedient,  which 

"  a  smooth  board  which  will  ex-  seems  good,  but  I  should  recom- 

tend  fully  across  the  form  and  mend  screws  instead  of  nails, 

chase  may  be  nailed  securely  to  One  hundred  and  forty  pounds 

the  furniture  near  the  centre  of  isenoughwithinaskeletonchase. 


292 


Chases  with  cross-bars 


secure  in  one  chase,  twin  chases  are  preferred.  The 
twin  chases  give  additional  safety  in  handling,  but 
the  sides  of  these  chases  are  often  made  thinner 
on  the  meeting  side.  For  large  pages  of  quarto 
form,  twin  chases  are  made  with  one  cross-bar. 


Twin  chases. 


Twin  chases  with  one 
cross-bar. 


The  cross-bar  is  sometimes  welded  in  the  frame, 
but  it  is  oftener  a  movable  bar  of  iron,  cut  with 
projecting  dovetails  on  either  end  that  accurately 
fit  in  slots  of  similar  form  cut  in  the  chase.  It  is 
known  as  the  short  cross.  So  made,  the  tendency 
to  bow  outward  on  the  side  is  prevented. 

To  prevent  the  bowing  outward  on  the  narrower 
ends,  and  to  insure  accurate  register  on  book- work, 
it  is  necessary  to  use  another  bridge  or  connecting- 
rod,  known  as  the  long  cross,  which  is  firmly  con- 
nected to  the  outer  frame  by  the  same  device  of 
slots  and  dovetails.  As  it  has  less  resistance  to 
overcome,  the  long  cross  is  a  narrower  bar  of  iron. 
This  variety  of  chase  is  known  as  the  shifting- 
bar  chase,  or  the  book-chase.  The  side-sticks  and 


Chase-bars  need  special  care         293 

quoins  are  placed  nearest  the  chase-frame,  and  the 
pressure  on  the  pages  of  type,  when  properly  locked 
up,  is  evenly  resisted  by 
the  truly  squared  cross- 
bars. This  illustration 
shows  the  position  of  the 
bars  as  they  are  used  for 
ordinary  forms  of  8vo, 
16mo,  and  32mo.  For 
forms  of  12mo,  18mo,  and 
24mo,  that  require  a  fold- 
ing of  the  sheet  in  three 
parts,  the  long  cross  (and 
sometimes  the  short  cross) 
has  to  be  put  in  another 
position,  as  is  indicated  by 
the  places  for  slots  in  the 
illustration.  To  prevent 
the  bars  from  twisting  in  the  process  of  locking  up, 
the  pressure  should  be  made  equal  from  each  one 
of  the  four  sides  toward  the  common  centre.  Once 
twisted,  the  shifting  bars  are  made  entirely  straight 
or  square  with  some  difficulty. 

The  accuracy  of  a  book-chase  largely  depends  on 
the  care  given  to  the  shifting  bars,  which  are  made 
to  fit  exactly,  and  should  be  removed  and  inserted 
with  caution.  As  they  cannot  be  transposed  end  for 
end  alternately,  nor  be  fairly  fitted  to  other  chases 
apparently  of  the  same  size,  each  bar  should  have 
an  arbitrary  number  punched  on  one  end  with  steel 


Book-chase  with  two 
shifting  cross-bars. 


294  Long  and  narrow  chases 

punches,  and  this  number  should  be  repeated  on 
the  chase  in  the  place  where  it  meets  the  bar. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  the  bar  be  put  in 
any  other  place,  for  a  chase  is  permanently  injured 
when  the  bar  is  forced  into  a  slot  for  which  it  was 
not  originally  fitted.  Bars  taken  out  of  a  chase 
should  be  dried,  cleaned,  oiled,  and  put  away  in  a 
place  where  the  edges  of  the  dovetails  will  not  be 
hacked  or  bruised.  Carefully  treated,  they  will  do 
good  service  for  more  than  a  lifetime. 

Screw-chases  are  sometimes  provided  for  small 
presses.  Two  sides  are  pierced  for  screws  which 
press  against  the  stout  iron  bar  that  forces  the  type 
tight.  The  object  sought  is  the  locking  up  of  a 
large  form  in  a  small  chase,  for  which  quoins  and 
side-sticks  cannot  be  used.  The  small  screw-chase 
is  not  in  favor  ;  uneven  pressure  of  the  screw  will 
twist  the  type  off  its  feet,  and  the  screws  often 
rust  and  become  immovable.  Another  form  of 
screw-chase  is  made  for  locking  up  the  forms  of 
daily  newspapers. 

Long  and  narrow  chases  are  supplied  for  headings 

and    bill -heads.     They 

are  sometimes  used  on 
the  beds  of  printing-ma- 
chines as  a  better  substi- 

tute  for  many  Pieces  of 
wood  furniture,  which 

always  has  a  tendency  to  bow  or  spring  upward  on 
the  bed,  often  to  the  damage  of  the  machinery. 


Tools  used  about  the  stone 


295 


The  shooting-stick  is  a  short  bar  of  wood,  iron,  or 
brass  that  is  used  to  wedge  quoins  in  the  process 
of  locking  up.  The 

stick  of  hard  wood     ^ ^^ •  >•>•• "'  "^^^^^\ 

wears  out  quickly, 
but  it  does  not  de- 


Shooting-stick  of  iron. 


face  the  stone,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  preferred  for 
all  light  forms.  Brass  or  iron  shooting-sticks  are 
more  efficient  tools,  and  are  really  necessary  for  all 
heavy  forms,  but  they  require  careful  handling. 

The  mallet  provided  to  strike  the  shooting-stick, 
usually  of  wood,  is  sometimes  covered  with  sole- 
leather  and  sometimes  fer- 
ruled  with  an  iron  band. 
The  planer  is  a  stout 
^^  cube  of  hard  wood,  which 
can  be  used  with  propriety 
for  making  level  a  form  of 
type  only  before  the  form 
is  locked  up.  When  used  to  level  type  after  locking 
up,  it  may  become  a  tool  of  damage. 

The  proof -planer  is  the  ordinary  planer  covered 
with  thick  elastic  felt. 
It   is  used   for  taking 
pounded  proofs. 

Side-sticks,  or  bevels, 

are  inclined  planes  of 

,       .  Planer. 

wood,    iron,    or    type- 
metal,  made  to  the  height  of  low  quadrats,  to  lock 
up  or  secure  forms  of  type  in  chases  that  have  been 


Mallet. 


296  The  Hempel  quoin  of  iron 

properly  wedged  with  quoins.  Wood  is  cheapest 
and  most  used,  but  it  necessarily  receives  hard 
treatment  and  is  soon  worn  out.  Its  liability  to 
warp  is  another  objection.  For  newspaper  forms 
and  book-work  the  metal  side-stick  is  preferred. 

Quoins  are  the  blunt  wedges  of  maple,  hickory, 
or  boxwood  that  are  forced  against  the  side-stick 
by  means  of  shooting-stick  and  mallet.  Quoins 
and  side-sticks  of  wood  shrink  after  they  have  been 
wet  and  dried,  and  gradually  relax  their  pressure ; 
this  sometimes  causes  a  piing  of  the  form.  To  pre- 
vent this  accident,  as  well  as  to  put  a  stronger 
pressure  on  the  type,  iron  quoins,  commonly  known 
as  patent  quoins,  have  been  invented.  They  are 
made  in  many  styles,  and  some  are  protected  by 
patents.  The  iron  quoin  most  approved  of  is  in 
two  pieces,  each  having  two  small  inclined  planes 
of  equal  length,  with  cogs  or  teeth  on  the  interior 
sides.  A  key-wrench,  that  grips  the  interior  cogs 

or  teeth,  expands 
the  two  pieces 
to  a  wider  par- 
allel and  gradu- 
ally tightens  the 
The  Hempel  quoin.  type  in  the  form. 

A  tongue  on  one 

half  of  the  quoin,  fitting  in  a  corresponding  groove 
in  the  other  half,  prevents  either  half  from  being 
twisted  out  of  line.  The  power  that  can  be  exerted 
by  this  wrench  is  greater  than  that  usually  obtained 


Adjusting  margins 


297 


with  the  mallet  and  shooting-stick.  These  patent 
quoins  are  better  than  quoins  of  wood  in  prevent- 
ing the  slackening  of 
pressure  after  the  form 
has  left  the  press,  but  they 
are  not  so  efficient  while 
the  form  is  on  press.  The 
jarring  made  on  some 
kinds  of  cylinder-presses 
tends  to  their  gradual 
loosening. 

A  strip  of  thick  blot- 
ting-paper or  of  thin  pine 

reglet  between  a  Hempel  quoin  and  the  chase  may 
prevent  the  loosening  of  pressure  produced  by  the 
continued  vibration. 

Another  variety  of  iron  quoin  consists  of  two 
stout  cubes  of  iron  that  can  be  pushed  apart  by 
working  a  ratchet  against  the  nuts  of  a  right  and 
left  screw  fixed  between  the  cubes. 


Hempel  iron  quoin  with 
its  turnkey. 


ADJUSTING   MARGINS 

One  of  the  duties  of  the  stoneman  is  the  making 
of  margins.  In  some  printing-houses  it  is  the  cus- 
tom to  have  him  determine  all  margins  from  scant 
verbal  instruction  without  a  plan.  This  custom 
is  not  to  be  commended,  for  it  leaves  too  much 
to  his  discretion.  As  the  margins  on  three  sides  of 
the  proposed  book  may  be  unequally  reduced  by 


298      Pattern  sheet  needed  by  stoneman 

trimming,  and  on  one  side  by  some  methods  of 
sewing  or  stitching,  about  which  he  is  seldom  fully 
advised,  it  seems  proper  that  the  determination  of 
head  and  back  margins  for  every  page  should  be 
made  in  the  counting-room  by  the  person  who  has 
taken  in  the  order  for  the  book  and  has  explicit 
instructions  from  its  publisher  about  the  margins. 

For  this  purpose  a  pattern  sheet  should  be  made 
with  carefully  drawn  pen  lines  that  describe  the 
width  of  back  and  head  margins  upon  the  leaves  of 
any  two  mated  pages  of  the  paper  that  will  be  used 
in  printing  the  book.  These  mated  pages  will  be 
1  and  8  in  the  half -sheet  of  8vo,  or  1  and  16  in  the 
half-sheet  of  16mo.  The  pen  drawing  should  be 
made  upon  the  outer  leaves  of  a  full  section  of  the 
book,  which  consists  of  as  many  leaves  as  the  binder 
folds  together  at  one  operation.  It  is  usually  eight 
leaves  (sixteen  pages)  of  ordinary  paper,  but  it  may 
be  only  four  leaves  (eight  pages)  of  thick  paper.  If 
paper  of  the  prescribed  size  is  not  in  the  house,  a 
larger  size  may  be  selected,  and  a  piece  of  this 
larger  size  must  be  cut  down  to  the  exact  size  of 
the  paper  needed  for  one  section.  The  paper  for 
this  model  should  be  folded  with  great  accuracy  to 
make  even  folds  without  waste.  So  folded,  it  will 
show  the  leaves  as  they  will  appear  unsewed  and 
untrimmed. 

Before  any  attempt  is  made  to  draw  the  lines 
for  the  head  and  back  margins,  it  should  be  known 
whether  the  intended  book  is  to  be  sewed,  centre- 


Paper  wasted  by  trimming  299 

stitched,  or  side-stitched,  whether  it  is  to  be  trimmed 
much  or  little,  at  head  and  tail  only,  or  all  around, 
or  left  with  uncut  edges.  Fair  allowance  must  be 
made  in  the  pattern  sheet  for  the  paper  that  will 
be  wasted  in  trimming,  or  taken  up  and  concealed 
in  the  back  by  different  methods  of  sewing  or  side- 
stitching,  as  may  be  more  apparent  in  this  diagram. 


Outer  dotted  line  indicates  the  full  size  of  the  untrimmed 
leaf;  the  black  connected  line  near  it,  the  leaf  as  it  will 
appear  after  trimming ;  the  outlined  square  in  the  centre 
of  each  leaf,  the  position  of  the  page. 

If  the  book  is  to  be  trimmed  (or,  even  if  untrimmed, 
it  may  afterward  be  rebound),  begin  by  marking 
off  at  the  head,  front,  and  tail  of  the  leaf  the  paper 
that  will  be  wasted  in  trimming.  For  the  head 
margin  of  an  octavo  allow  for  waste  one  eighth  of 
an  inch,  for  the  front  margin  one  quarter  of  an 
inch,  and  for  the  tail  margin  three  eighths  of  an 


300  Margins  must  be  unequal 

inch.  These  are  approximations  j  a  careful  binder 
takes  less,  a  reckless  binder  more.  Then  consult 
the  binder  as  to  the  loss  of  paper  taken  up  in  the 
back  by  wire-stitching  or  sewing,  and  mark  off  the 
width  of  the  paper  so  concealed.  The  paper  taken 
up  in  the  back  by  binding  will  be  variable :  in  some 
kinds  of  sewed  books  it  will  be  too  small  for  allow- 
ance ;  in  the  side-stitched  book  it  will  vary  from  one 
sixth  to  one  quarter  of  an  inch,  or  more  if  there 
are  many  sections  in  the  book. 

Having  determined  the  dimensions  of  the  leaf  as 
it  will  appear  after  sewing  and  trimming,  mark  on 
the  leaf,  with  clear  pen  lines,  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  page  in  exact  position.  Custom  requires  that 
the  margins  of  a  page  shall  be  uneven  :  least  at  the 
back,  but  little  more  apparently  at  the  head,  much 
more  at  the  front,  and  most  of  all  at  the  tail.  A 
page  so  placed  on  the  leaf  will  be  most  acceptable  to 
publisher  and  book-buyer.  The  proportions  may 
be  roughly  expressed  by  these  figures  for  the  plain 
octavo :  for  visible  back  margin  (after  sewing)  4 
to  5  picas,  for  head  margin  5  to  6  picas,  for  front 
margin  7  to  8  picas,  for  tail  margin  8  to  9  picas,  it 
being  understood  that  these  will  be  the  measure- 
ments of  the  leaf  after  sewing  and  trimming.  The 
width  of  the  paper  lost  by  trimming  or  concealed 
by  sewing  must  be  estimated  and  allowed  for  in  the 
proposed  margin  on  the  pattern  sheet.  These  ap- 
portionments will  be  satisfactory  for  the  ordinary 
book,  but  a  publisher,  for  peculiar  reasons,  may 


How  to  adjust  margins  to  paper       301 

require  margins  to  be  wider  or  narrower.  If  so, 
they  must  be  changed  to  meet  his  wishes,  but  the 
rule  of  a  steadily  increasing  width  of  margin,  be- 
ginning at  the  back,  increasing  at  the  front,  and 
greatest  at  the  tail,  is  seldom  departed  from  in  the 
ordinary  well-made  book. 

The  head  and  back  margins  should  be  first  deter- 
mined. If  they  have  been  considered  with  relation 
to  their  waste  by  trimming  and  sewing,  they  will 
be  seldom  changed.  If  correct  on  the  pattern  sheet 
for  the  two  mated  pages  of  a  section,  they  will  be 
correct  for  all  the  pages  in  the  form,  whether  that 
form  is  an  8vo  of  one  section  or  a  64mo  of  four 
sections. 

Front  and  tail  margins  can  be  most  accurately 
made  by  the  stoneman,  for  they  cannot  be  prede- 
termined with  precision  by  guesswork.  The  pages 
in  a  form  should  be  so  disposed  on  the  stone  that 
they  will  fairly  fill  the  sheet,  without  any  waste  of 
paper,  and  yet  present  the  needed  inequality  of 
margin  about  every  page  when  the  sheet  has  been 
printed.  In  other  words,  the  form  must  be  made 
up  to  fit  the  paper.  It  may  have  sixty-four  pages, 
to  be  divided  by  the  binder  in  four  sections  for 
separate  folding.  For  the  form  of  many  pages 
more  blank  must  be  put  in  the  places  where  the 
sections  have  to  be  cut,  but  under  all  conditions  the 
blanks  must  be  so  adjusted  that  the  front  and  tail 
margins  in  all  sections  will  be  exactly  uniform. 
So  adjusted,  every  section  can  be  folded  evenly, 


302         Margins  determined  by  paper 

without  waste  or  protruding  bolts  or  edges  at  the 
fore  edge  and  tail.1 

The  diagram  on  page  299  is  useful  as  a  guide  to 
the  maker-up,  but  it  is  not  enough  for  the  stoneman. 
It  does  not  sufficiently  indicate  the  proper  margins 
between  meeting  fore  edges  or  meeting  tails  in  the 
form  of  many  pages.  The  form  of  12, 16,  24,  or  32 
pages  needs  a  surer  guide. 

The  front  margins  for  the  form  of  eight  pages  can 
be  determined  by  taking  two  leaves  of  the  pattern 
sheet  previously  described  on  page  299,  and  lapping 
them  over  any  two  mated  pages  so  that  the  edges  of 
the  paper  shall  accurately  meet  similar  sides  of  pages 
in  different  quarters  of  the  chase,  as  is  shown  in  the 
opposite  diagram  between  pages  1  and  7.  Give  to 
the  front  margins  all  the  blank  not  already  covered 
by  type  or  by  the  furniture  of  back  margin.  The 
tail  margins  will  be  regulated  by  the  pressman. 

For  the  half-sheet  of  16mo  use  the  same  method 
for  determining  the  front  margins,  which,  in  this 
instance,  will  be  between  pages  1  and  13.  For  the 


i  One  method  of  ascertaining  vals  through  the  folded  section, 
proper  front  and  tail  margins  That  done,  unfold  the  paper: 
for  the  16mo  begins  with  accu-  the  distance  between  parallel 
rately  folding  a  sheet  of  its  own  stabs  will  show  the  width  of  the 
paper  to  a  section  of  eight  leaves,  blanks  needed  for  proper  mar- 
leaving  unopened  all  its  folds  or  gins.  This  method,  of  some 
bolts.  Then  place  a  page  of  its  service  to  a  novice  in  margin- 
type  upon  the  first  leaf  of  that  making,  has  its  disadvantages, 
folded  section,  and  pencil  a  line  The  adjustment  of  margins  by 
all  around  the  page  on  that  leaf,  measuring  pages  from  extreme 
With  a  sharp  penknife  stab  each  points  with  the  paper  to  be  used 
line  in  two  places  at  wide  inter-  is  a  more  common  method. 


Adjusting  margins  for  eight  pages     303 

tail  margin  take  a  quarter-sheet  of  the  paper,  which 
must  overlap  from  the  tail  of  page  3  to  the  tail  of 
page  5,  accurately  meeting  the  extreme  ends  of  full 


Making  front  margins  for  a  form  of  eight  pages. 

pages,  and  all  the  surplus  of  blank  must  be  given 
to  tail  margins  on  each  side  of  the  short  cross-bar. 
When  the  pages  in  other  quarters  of  the  chase 
have  been  margined  in  a  similar  manner,  all  margins 
will  be  correct.  The  sheet  printed  therefrom  can 


304       Adjustment  for  a  form  of  sixteen 

be  folded  correctly  by  print  or  by  the  edges  of  paper. 
Forms  of  more  than  16  pages  must  be  treated  in 
the  same  way,  for  they  are  usually  combinations  on 


Making  tail  margins  for  a  form  of  sixteen  pages. 


one  sheet  of  different  sections  of  8  or  16  pages. 
Margins  approved  for  one  must  be  correct  for  all.1 


lit  may  happen  that  all  the 
sheets  of  the  ream  of  paper  to 
be  used  are  not  of  the  same  size. 
The  ream  sold  as  of  20  x  30  inches 
may  have  some  sheets  that  are 
one  eighth  or  one  sixth  of  an  inch 
longer.  Short  sheets  are  rare. 
This  slight  excess  in  measure- 
ment, disregarded  in  ordinary 


newspaper  or  job  work,  may  be 
a  real  annoyance  in  bookbind- 
ing. When  an  over-long  sheet 
has  been  properly  folded,  its  ex- 
cess on  some  leaves  of  one  eighth 
or  one  sixth  of  an  inch  will  pro- 
ject ragged  leaves  beyond  the 
folded  bolts,  much  to  the  annoy- 
ance of  the  reader. 


To  prevent  protruding  leaves          305 

In  the  book  intended  to  be  trimmed  upon  two  or 
three  sides,  the  leaves  that  are  slightly  over- wide  or 
over-long  may  not  be  rated  as  faults,  for  the  cutting 
machine  that  trims  off  the  bolts  also  cuts  off  every 
other  chance  excess  of  paper  and  makes  all  the 
leaves  of  uniform  size.  But  there  are  buyers  who 
insist  on  uncut  leaves  of  full  size,  with  bolts  un- 
marred  by  the  knife.  To  them  the  protruding  leaf 
is  a  serious  blemish  that  must  be  removed.  How  to 
remove  it  neatly  after  printing  is  a  puzzle.  It  can 
be  "  rough-cut "  by  tearing  each  sheet  down  against 
a  sharp  straight-edge,  but  never  by  the  scissors  or 
knife ;  by  rasping  off  in  the  folded  section  the  ex- 
cess of  paper  with  a  rotary  haggler ;  by  grinding 
it  off  with  a  rotary  circular  knife.  But  all  these 
methods  call  for  needless  labor,  and  none  of  them 
gives  to  the  finished  book  the  desired  neatness.  It 
is  better  to  prevent  than  to  correct. 

If  the  ream  of  paper  sold  as  30  inches  long  and 
20  inches  wide  contains  occasional  sheets  that  are 
20^  inches  wide,  take  the  largest  sheet  as  the  safer 
guide  for  making  margin.  Make  the  distance  be- 
tween pages  3  and  15  in  the  half -sheet  of  16mo 
10-jV  inches  instead  of  10  inches.  This  means  put- 
ting an  added  nonpareil  reglet  by  the  side  of  the 
long  cross-bar.  So  treated,  the  excess  of  one  sixth 
of  an  inch  will  be  fairly  divided  in  folding  and  ap- 
portioned to  each  half  of  the  sheet.  The  sheets 
that  are  but  20  inches  wide  will  have  leaves  that 
are  one  twelfth  of  an  inch  shorter  than  sheets  with 


306  Locking  up  work  of  nicety 

bolts  of  folded  leaves  which  must  come  flush  up  to 
the  fore  edge.  In  the  form  so  made  up  there  will 
be  no  ragged  or  protruding  leaves.  The  deficiency 
in  the  short  leaves  will  be  almost  imperceptible. 

LOCKING    UP 

The  locking  up  of  pages  in  a  form  of  type  seems 
as  simple  work  to  the  unpractised  as  the  driving  of 
wedges.  This  common  belief  is  a  serious  error: 
pages  cannot  be  truly  squared  and  properly  pre- 
pared for  printing  by  brute  force  only.  Locking 
up  calls  for  unusual  discretion  in  the  selection  of 
the  quoins,  chases,  and  side-sticks,  as  well  as  in  the 
graduation  of  pressure. 

Before  made-up  pages  are  laid  down,  the  impos- 
ing-stone should  be  made  perfectly  clean.  Particles 
of  dust  adhering  to  the  stone  will  prevent  an  even 
planing  down  of  the  type,  and  the  mould  taken 
from  types  of  uneven  height  will  produce  uneven 
electrotype  plates. 

Correct  stone -work  depends  primarily  on  prop- 
erly justified  lines  and  exact  make-up,  but  the  stone 
is  not  the  place  to  remedy  the  grosser  faults  made 
by  the  compositor.  When  faults  have  been  dis- 
covered, or  belated  corrections  in  justification  are 
required  after  imposition,  the  pages  should  be  sent 
back  to  the  galley.  The  readjustment  of  make-up 
on  the  stone  is  always  difficult  and  is  seldom  done 
in  a  satisfactory  manner. 


Steel  square  and  straight-edge        307 

The  chase  needs  an  examination.  It  may  have  on 
the  cross-bars  blotches  of  rust,  or  adhering  card- 
board put  there  by  the  pressman  as  a  makeshift  aid 
to  exact  register ;  it  may  be  warped  or  twisted,  so 
that  it  does  not  entirely  rest  flat  upon  the  stone ;  it 
may  be  out  of  square,  with  bent  or  sprung  cross- 
bars or  bruised  dovetails  thrust  in  badly  fitting 
slots.  Chases  with  crooked  or  twisted  bars  often 
cause  types  to  get  "  off  their  feet "  j  they  work  up 
spaces,  and  produce  bad  register. 

The  chase  should  be  selected  to  fit  the  press  upon 
which  it  will  be  printed,  large  enough  to  give  free 
play  to  the  quoins,  but  not  so  large  as  to  compel 
the  use  of  an  excess  of  interior  wood  furniture. 
Its  corners  in  the  angles  of  the  frame  and  in  those 
of  the  bars  should  be  tested  with  a  steel  square 
before  it  is  accepted.  If  it  is  not  truly  square,  exact 
register  is  made  difficult  and  is  often  impossible.1 

A  steel  square  and  a  long  straight-edge  of  steel 
are  needed  for  exact  book- work  by  the  stoneman 
as  much  as  they  are  by  a  carpenter  or  a  machinist. 

l  A    jobbing    electrotyper    of  printed  together  upon  one  sheet 

New  York  City,  who  received  and  the  pages  backed  each  other, 

every  day  from  different  print-  In  some  of  these  forms,  out-of- 

ers  forms  varying  in  dimensions  squareness    was    produced   by 

from  five  to  one  hundred  square  locking  up  the  form  against  the 

inches,  reports  that  many  forms  wrong  corner,  so  that  the  pres- 

delivered  to  him  were  not  truly  sure  of  the  quoins  had  to  be 

squared    and    properly  locked,  resisted  by  the  unsquared  inner 

The  deviation  from  a  true  right  angle  of  a  cast-iron  chase ;  in 

angle  was  usually  slight,  not  to  others,  by  too  much  pressure  on 

be  noticed  in  a  print  on  one  side  one  side  and  too  little  on  an- 

only  of  the  paper,  but  noticeable  other,  or  by  worn  and  warped 

enough  when  many  plates  were  furniture  of  wood. 


308      To  prevent  chase  bowing  on  press 

The  pressman  who  has  to  print  a  letterpress  form 
should  not  be  required  to  correct  the  skewing  of 
pages  by  inserting  bits  of  cardboard  between  the 
chase  and  the  furniture.  A  book  form  of  many 
pages  can  be  and  should  be  prepared  on  the  im- 
posing-stone to  produce  perfect  register. 

A  form  of  four  or  eight  small  pages  may  be  truly 
locked  up  in  an  ordinary  cast-iron  chase,  but  the 
form  of  twelve  or  more  pages  of  12mo  or  of  larger 
size  needs  a  wrought-iron  chase  with  true  cross-bars. 
The  chase  without  cross-bars,  whether  of  wrought- 
or  cast-iron,  will  bend  outward  in  the  centre,  where 
pressure  is  great  and  resistance  is  small.  Cross-bars 
are  added  to  the  chase  as  a  means  to  maintain  a 
uniform  resistance  on  each  side  of  the  bars  against 
the  even,  all-around  pressure  of  locking  up.  If  the 
pressure  is  unequal,  and  is  greater  in  one  half  or 
one  quarter  of  the  chase,  the  cross-bars  at  the  over- 
tight  part  will  bend.  Slots  are  cut  in  the  chase  and 
dovetails  are  put  in  the  bars  to  prevent  this  outward 
bending  of  type  and  to  aid  in  giving  squareness  to 
the  form. 

A  large  form  of  one  page  only  that  contains  a 
great  mass  of  heavy  type  needs  a  chase  with  frame 
of  extra  thickness.  While  a  tight  locking  up  is 
needed  to  prevent  the  sagging  of  type  in  the  centre 
of  the  form  and  to  provide  for  its  security  in  transit 
to  the  press,  too  strong  pressure  is  sure  to  bend  the 
chase  and  to  bow  outward  the  type  in  the  form. 
To  keep  all  lines  of  type  square  or  in  parallel,  the 


Furniture  to  be  carefully  selected      309 

pressman  may  have  to  unlock  the  form  after  it  has 
been  placed  on  the  bed  of  the  press,  to  put  a  thin 
reglet  between  the  chase  and  the  centre  clamp  on 
the  bed  of  a  cylinder-press,  and  then  relock  the  type 
in  the  form  as  well  as  relock  the  chase  upon  the  bed. 
The  stiff  resistance  of  the  centre  clamp  on  the  bed 
of  the  press  is  needed  there  to  prevent  the  bowing 
outward  of  the  chase  and  to  preserve  the  straight- 
ness  of  the  lines  of  type. 

Furniture  of  wood  that  has  been  water -soaked 
and  warped,  frayed  at  the  edges  or  rounded  at  the 
corners,  should  never  be  used.  The  outer  furniture 
between  the  side-stick  and  the  chase  should  be  of 
one  piece  only,  fully  as  long  as  the  resisting  side- 
stick  or  foot -stick.  The  fudging  of  two  or  more 
small  pieces  of  wood  as  resists  to  the  quoins,  or  the 
selection  of  two  small  quoins,  compels  needless  labor 
and  makes  unsatisfactory  work. 


A  side-stick  properly  cut. 

Side-sticks  of  wood  should  be  cut  diagonally  at  the 
ends,  so  that  they  will  present  the  longer  side  to 
the  type,  and  not  to  the  quoins.  This  will  pre- 
vent the  use  of  the  side  provided  for  quoins  against 
the  type,  and  will  preserve  the  smooth  side  for  the 
type  only.  The  side-stick  or  foot-stick  at  its  nar- 
rower end  should  be  as  long  as  but  no  longer  than 


310       Relative  merits  of  wood  and  metal 

the  type  it  presses  against :  neither  one  should  cross 
the  other,  nor  should  the  head-bolt,  gutter,  or  any 
other  piece  of  furniture  in  the  chase  be  so  long 
that  it  will  bind  against  the  side-  or  foot-stick. 
The  relative  length  and  suitable  position  of  each 
bit  of  furniture  in  a  form  of  8vo  may  be  seen  in 
the  diagram  on  page  63.  The  accompanying  dia- 
gram shows  an  improper  selection  of  the  side-stick. 
When  one  bevelled  stick  crosses  another,  the  form 
is  locked  and  unlocked  with  difficulty,  and  always 
at  some  risk  of  squabbling  the  type. 

Metal  furniture  in  one 
piece  only  should  be 
preferred  for  the  head- 
bolts  as  well  as  for 
backs  or  gutters.  Side- 
sticks  of  iron,  or  even 
of  type-metal,  are  bet- 
ter than  those  of  wood. 
Guttered  furniture  for 


/- 

..  ---.--;      . 

--..-  -----    ' 

>:;-5:^Ir;^ 

^OT^S 
^^^ 

^ 

; 

Improper  side-sticks. 


back  margins  should  be  a  little  short  of  the  full 
length  of  the  page,  and  head-bolts  a  little  narrower 
than  the  width  of  the  measure,  but  if  the  head-bolts 
are  cut  too  narrow  the  types  near  the  corners  of 
head-lines  may  be  insecurely  held.  For  ordinary 
work  the  furniture  outside  of  the  type  and  nearest 
the  chase  may  be  of  wood,  but  metal  is  safer  for 
interior  work,  for  color-printing,  for  rule  borders, 
or  for  any  work  that  will  require  accurate  register. 
When  suitable  garnishings  have  been  selected  and 


Pages  to  be  tightened  gradually       311 

adjusted,  the  quoins  may  be  put  in.  They  should 
be  selected  with  care,  for  much  wrong  locking  up 
is  caused  by  the  forcing  of  quoins  into  positions  for 
which  they  are  not  fitted.  Any  quoin  selected  that 
does  not  rest  flat  on  the  stone  and  that  will  not 
move  snugly  against  the  side-stick  should  be  re- 
jected at  once.  It  is  bad  practice  to  allow  quoins 
to  project  at  an  angle  so  that  they  can  be  struck 
direct  with  the  mallet,  and  not  by  the  shooting-stick. 
The  flat  side  of  quoins  should  always  rest  upon  the 
stone.  When  the  side-stick  is  thin  and  has  a  slight 
bevel,  it  will  be  necessary,  as  increase  of  pressure 
may  require,  to  change  the  quoins  first  selected  for 
others  of  larger  size.  A  thin  side-stick  will  need 
more  quoins  than  a  thicker  one. 

As  the  cord  that  ties  the  page  is  gradually  un- 
wound, the  quoins  should  be  gradually  tightened, 
by  the  pressure  of  the  fingers,  so  that  the  side-stick 
will  be  kept  close  to  the  type  and  prevent  the  thin 
letters  at  the  ends  of  the  lines  from  hanging  or  drop- 
ping. At  this  stage  the  mallet  should  not  be  used  j 
the  pressure  of  the  fingers  is  sufficient.  The  quoins 
should  be  equidistant,  and  no  more  force  should 
be  exerted  than  is  needed  for  a  gentle  pressure. 

When  the  page-cords  have  been  removed,  and  the 
pages  have  been  cautiously  and  securely  pressed  by 
side-sticks  and  quoins,  the  form  may  be  planed 
down.  Before  this -operation  the  face  of  the  planer 
should  be  examined  and  brushed  off.  Some  printers 
wrap  its  face  with  smooth  clean  paper.  The  planer 


312  Violent  planing  a  mistake 

should  be  held  firmly  in  the  left  hand,  so  that  it 
cannot  be  moved  side  wise  by  the  blow  of  the  mallet. 
It  should  always  have  a  full  bearing  on  the  type, 
and  never  be  allowed  to  hang  over  the  side  or  over 
an  open  page  that  offers  no  resistance.  It  should 
be  struck  in  the  centre,  not  with  the  head  but  with 
the  end  of  the  handle  of  the  mallet.  In  composition 
that  has  been  fairly  prepared,  very  little  force  is 
needed  to  press  down  the  few  types  that  may  be 
too  high,  and  taps  with  the  end  of  the  handle  are 
enough  for  the  purpose.  When  the  planer  is  struck 
by  the  head  of  the  mallet,  it  is  usually  struck  at  an 
angle,  so  that  the  force  applied  is  unequally  dif- 
fused ;  most  of  that  force  is  exerted  on  the  side  of 
the  planer  nearest  the  striker,  and  the  far-off  side 
gets  but  little.  When  the  blow  is  struck  vertically 
by  the  handle,  less  force  is  needed,  and  that  force 
is  more  equally  diffused. 

A  violent  planing  down  of  the  form  is  always 
damaging  to  the  type,  especially  so  when  the  striker 
works  rapidly  and  makes  his  blows  fall  upon  a 
planer  which  may  be  occasionally  held  at  an  angle 
that  does  not  give  it  a  full  flat  bearing  on  every 
part  of  the  type.  Violent  planing  down  is  wrongly 
supposed  to  hide  some  of  the  mischiefs  produced 
by  loose  justification  and  over-tight  locking  up.  In 
all  forms  that  have  been  locked  up  too  tightly,  the 
type  will  bow  or  curve  upward  slightly  about  the 
centre  of  the  form,  and  will  not  rest  fairly  upon 
the  stone.  The  form  that  is  so  locked  up  may  be 


Faults  produced  by  bottled  type       313 

repeatedly  planed  down  until  the  types  meet  the 
stone  in  the  centre,  but  they  will  spring  back  again 
in  this  or  in  another  quarter,  and  will  soon  carry 
upward  with  them  the  spaces  that  blacken  the  sheet. 

The  slightness  of  the  pressure  needed  to  secure  a 
properly  justified  form  is  fairly  illustrated  by  patent 
iron  quoins.  Slight  twists  of  the  wrench  on  the 
quoins  will  tighten  the  type  more  securely  than 
many  uneven  blows  with  the  mallet. 

Bottled  types  are  not  so  common  now  as  they 
were,  but  when  they  seem  to  be  the  cause  of  the 
bowing  upward  of  type  in  any  part  of  the  form,  a 
rough  remedy  may  be  devised  by  inserting  a  strip 
about  half  an  inch  high  of  thin,  bevelled  cardboard 
between  the  side-stick  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
body  of  the  type.  The  increasing  thickness  of  the 
cardboard  near  the  lower  part  of  the  body  of  the 
type,  where  the  bottling  is  apparent,  provides  a 
more  even  resistance  to  the  pressure  of  the  quoins. 
It  makes  less  the  greater  pressure  at  the  base  that 
tends  to  thrust  types  upward.  When  the  bottling 
is  conspicuous,  the  bevelled  cardboard  should  be 
used  on  the  opposite  end  of  the  page. 

Types  are  about  eleven  twelfths  and  side-sticks 
about  five  eighths  of  an  inch  high.  The  pressure 
of  locking  up  is  consequently  greatest  at  the  foot 
of  composed  type,  but  if  the  type  is  in  any  way 
bottled,  the  pressure  there  will  be  unduly  increased. 
The  bevelled  cardboard  at  the  side  will  be  an  aid 
to  more  even  pressure. 


314     Equality  of  pressure  of  importance 

In  this  diagram  the  outer  black  line  represents  the 
outline  of  a  page  before  locking ;  the  inner  dotted 
line,  the  same  page  after  locking  up.  The  distance 
between  these  lines  indi- 
cates approximately  the 
"  give  "  or  compressibility 
of  the  type,  which,  in  a 
long  page  of  leaded  type, 
is  usually  greater  from  the 
head  to  the  foot  than  from 
side  to  side.  The  single 
types  in  the  corner  A  are 
but  slightly  moved  by 
locking  up,  but  those  in 

the  corner  C  will  be  moved  much  more,  and  in  a 
diagonal  line  toward  that  corner  A.  To  lock  up 
properly,  the  pressure  applied  to  the  type  must  be 
gradual  and  even  on  each  side.  When  the  pressure 
is  not  even  and  gradual,  one  page  or  one  quarter 
will  hang  or  crook.  If  the  quoins  at  the  foot  of 
the  form  are  made  full  tight  before  any  pressure  is 
put  on  the  side,  the  types  will  give  in  that  direction 
only.  If  the  types  have  been  made  needlessly 
tight  by  too  much  pressure  at  the  foot,  twice  as 
much  force  must  be  exerted  to  move  them  in  the 
contrary  direction.  Under  this  unnecessary  pres- 
sure, the  types  will  bow  upward  or  hang  in  one 
quarter,  the  cross-bars  may  be  twisted,  or  the  chase 
may  be  strained  or  cracked.  In  every  form  too 
tightly  locked  up  the  types  are  sure  to  bow  upward  j 


Faults  of  over-tight  locking  up        315 

then  follows  a  violent  and  needless  planing  down 
in  a  vain  effort  to  keep  them  on  their  feet.1 

The  tightening  of  quoins  should  begin  at  the  tail 
of  pages  by  pushing  up  the  quoins  with  the  thumb. 
The  pages  should  be  next  tightened  on  the  side  in 
the  same  manner.  Each  quarter  should  be  sepa- 
rately treated.  When  the  quoins  cannot  be  moved 
by  the  fingers,  the  shooting-stick  and  the  mallet 
may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  first  strokes  of 
the  mallet  should  be  light,  and  should  be  given  in 
regular  order  to  the  quoins  in  each  quarter  of  the 
chase.  For  a  large  and  heavy  form  of  many  pages 
to  be  locked  up  against  cross-bars,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  go  around  the  form  two  or  three  times, 
gradually  increasing  the  pressure.  The  stoneman 
should  try  to  lock  up  type  continuously  and  slowly ; 
to  do  it  hurriedly  or  recklessly  is  to  do  it  badly. 
When  the  form  is  supposed  to  be  tight  enough,  it 
should  be  tested  by  straight-edge  and  square,  which 
will  show  where  there  may  be  too  much  pressure. 
In  any  form  that  has  been  truly  justified  and  evenly 
locked,  the  pressure  required  will  not  be  great. 

The  difficulty  of  locking  up  is  always  greater  in 
forms  that  contain  tables  with  brass  rules  crossing 
at  right  angles  or  with  brass  borders.  Forms  full 

i  Careful  pressmen  often  find  this  precaution  is  neglected,  if 

it  of  importance  to  slacken  the  the  presswork  begins  before  the 

quoins  of  a  too  tightly  locked  types  in  the  form  rest  on  their 

form  as  soon  as  it  is  laid  on  the  feet,  an  even  impression  cannot 

bed  of  the  press,  so  as  to  allow  be  had.    Types  will  receive  in- 

the  types  curved  upward  in  the  jury,  spaces  will  work  up,  and  the 

centre  to  rest  on  their  feet.    If  work  will  be  delayed. 


316        Faults  produced  ~by  brass  rules 

of  thin  leads,  or  that  have  columns  of  types  set  to 
different  measures  and  at  right  angles,  with  cross- 
justification,  or  that  are  comparatively  solid  and 
incompressible  on  one  side  and  open  and  spongy 
on  the  other  side,  are  always  troublesome.  In  forms 
like  these  the  fault  begins  with  careless  justifica- 
tion, but  is  sometimes  increased  by  badly  cut  and 
crooked  brass  rules  that  have  not  had  the  bur  re- 
moved from  the  cut  edges.  Bent  leads  and  foul  or 
badly  washed  types  are  other  hindrances. 

If  a  form  has  one  solid  and  one  spongy  side,  as 
may  happen  in  the  ordinary  form  of  bank-checks, 
a  line  of  properly  matched  quadrats  or  quotations 
should  be  put  on  each  side  of  the  form  as  a  guard. 
The  side-sticks  will  then  have  an  even  and  solid 
bearing  against  the  guards  so  provided,  and  will 
not  bend  the  types  at  one  end  or  in  the  centre. 

When  mitred  brass  rules  do  not  join,  the  accuracy 
of  the  mitring  should  be  tested.  Even  when  the 
mitring  is  exact,  there  will  be  difficulty  if  the  rule 
is  too  thin,  or  if  the  form  is  locked  with  wood 
quoins  and  a  thin  wood  side-stick.  A  large  form 
of  pages  with  mitred  brass-rule  borders  can  be  truly 
locked  up  only  by  making  use  of  an  accurate  chase, 
metal  furniture  for  all  divisions  inside  of  the  type- 
work,  perfect  justification,  iron  side-sticks,  and 
patent  quoins.  To  these  must  be  added  extra  care 
on  the  part  of  the  stoneman. 

The  art  of  locking  up  may  be  summarized  in  a 
few  words :  Justify  and  make  up  accurately  with 


Locking  up  tested  by  the  planer       317 

types  squarely  on  their  feet.  Use  strong  and  true 
chases.  Prefer  metal  furniture  for  all  interior  work. 
Make  composition  solid,  and  avoid  a  too  free  use  of 
leads.  Use  iron  side-sticks  and  patent  quoins.  Lock 
up  slowly,  gradually,  and  not  too  tightly. 

Locking  up  is  done  for  newspaper-printing  ma- 
chines by  means  of  a  wrench  applied  to  screws  in 
the  chase.  The  pressure  so  exerted  is  great,  and 
may  make  the  types  half  a  point  higher.  I  have 
seen  types  humped  upon  the  back  of  each  body  in 
places  where  this  body  opposed  the  nick  of  the  types 
in  a  preceding  line  that  relieved  this  pressure. 

When  the  form  has  been  finally  locked  up,  the 
planer  may  be  gently  used,  not  to  beat  down  a  few 
types  that  are  supposed  to  be  over-high,  but  to  as- 
certain whether  the  types  rest  truly  on  their  feet 
and  do  not  bow  or  curve  upward.  A  solid  sound, 
that  will  be  readily  recognized  in  the  shock  of  a 
firm  resistance,  is  always  produced  when  types  are 
on  their  feet,  and  the  form  that  gives  this  sound 
and  touch  seldom  needs  any  more  planing  down. 
The  hollow  sound  produced  by  the  planer  over  any 
portion  of  the  form  is  evidence  that  the  type  has 
sprung  upward  from  over-tight  locking  up.  When 
this  hollow  sound  is  heard,  it  will  be  useless  to  try 
to  put  types  on  their  feet  by  more  planing  down, 
for  the  bowing  upward  will  reappear  in  another 
quarter.  The  only  remedy  is  to  slacken  the  quoins : 
if  this  makes  the  form  insecure,  faults  in  justifica- 
tion or  make-up  should  be  searched  for. 


318      Safeguards  for  electrotype  forms 

Forms  of  type  surrounded  by  furniture  of  wood 
that  may  be  kept  in  the  chase  for  many  days  will 
require  a  frequent  retightening  of  the  quoins.  If 
this  precaution  is  neglected,  the  gradual  shrinking 
of  the  wood  may  cause  the  form  to  fall  in  pi. 

Patent  quoins  of  iron,  firm  as  they  may  seem  in 
their  hold  on  type  when  the  form  is  laid  on  the 
press-bed,  sometimes  work  slack  or  loose  by  the 
constant  jarring  of  the  printing-machine.  A  care- 
ful pressman  tests  their  tightness  repeatedly. 

Pages  intended  to  be  electrotyped  are  usually 
imposed  in  small  chases  of  cast-iron,  truly  squared, 
but  large  enough  to  hold  four  or  more  pages  of 
ordinary  12mo.  Small  types  and  half-tone  photo- 
engravings need  more  pressure  than  large  types. 
The  large  4to  or  8vo,  or  any  page  that  contains  a 
large  illustration,  is  most  satisfactorily  moulded  in 
the  chase  of  one  page  only.  A  page  of  type  and  a 
full-page  illustration  should  not  be  moulded  to- 
gether when  they  can  be  moulded  separately,  for 
each  page  requires  different  pressure. 

To  prevent  the  spreading  of  the  wax  over  the  sides 
and  ends  of  pages,  guards  are  provided  by  electro- 
typers.  These  guards  are  rudely  cast  slugs  of 
type-metal,  type-high  on  one  side  and  of  variable 
width  and  length,  cut  to  suit  the  size  of  page  re- 
quired. When  two  pages  are  imposed  in  one 
chase,  the  form  of  guard  is  changed  so  that  the 
plates  made  therefrom  can  be  separated  with  ease. 
It  is  possible  to  mould  type  without  any  bearer  or 


Guards  used  by  electrotypers         319 

guard,  but  the  plate  so  made  will  be  imperfect. 
When  proper  guards  have  not  been  attached  by  the 
stoneman,  the  electrotyper  tries  to  lessen  this  de- 


_. 


Guards  for  electrotype  work. 

feet  with  hasty  indentations  in  the  wax,  but  they 
never  do  the  perfect  work  of  guards  or  bearers. 

The  guards  of  metal  furniture  provided  by  the 
electrotyper  to  surround  every  page  are  intended 
to  confine  the  moulding  wax  so  that  it  will  not 
spread  outward,  and  to  assist  in  forming  the 
needed  bevel  that  is  afterward  planed  on  the  side 
of  the  finished  plate.  The  best  electrotype  plates 
are  made  from  types  set  up  with  high  spaces  and 
quadrats  that  are  of  even  height  with  the  shoulders 
of  the  types,  and  that  prevent  too  much  of  a  down- 
ward escape  of  the  moulding  wax.  A  further  safe- 
guard is  provided  against  imperfect  moulding  by 
inserting  in  every  open  space  on  the  page  type-high 
bearers  or  resists  to  pressure,  as  shown  on  pages  73 


320         The  taking  of  pounded  proofs 

and  74.  These  bearers  are  routed  off  the  plate 
when  they  have  served  this  purpose.  The  page  so 
formed  with  bearers  will  lighten  the  work  of  the 
electrotyper  and  materially  aid  him  in  producing  a 
printable  plate. 


TAKING  PROOFS 

Pages  to  be  electrotyped  should  be  proved  on  a 
hand-press ;  one  with  a  bed-plate  of  13  X  16  inches 
will  be  strong  enough  for  two  pages  of  large  8vo. 
Proofs  on  press,  that  do  not  damage  the  type,  are 
preferred  by  readers  to  those  taken  by  the  proof- 
planer. 

Letterpress  forms,  too  large  for  the  small  proof- 
press,  have  to  be  proved  by  beating  with  the  proof- 
planer  after  this  manner :  A  sheet  of  sized  paper, 
dampened  on  a  clean  stone  by  sponging  it  evenly 
on  one  side,  is  carefully  laid  upon  the  previously 
inked  form  of  type.  Then  the  stoneman  takes  the 
proof-planer  in  his  left  hand  and  lays  it  down 
squarely  but  quickly  upon  the  inked  form.  Be- 
ginning at  the  nearest  corner,  with  the  end  of  the 
handle  (not  with  mallet  head)  he  strikes  a  quick 
blow  usually  in  the  centre  of  the  planer.  From 
that  page  he  moves  the  planer  to  other  pages,  re- 
newing the  striking  until  he  sees  the  print  of  the 
types  faintly  indenting  the  moist  sheet.  In  like 
manner  he  beats  all  the  pages,  taking  care  not  to 
slip  the  planer  or  to  wrinkle  the  sheet,  or  to  beat 


Proper  cleansing  of  types  321 

too  violently  on  blank  pages  or  exposed  lines  to 
their  injury. 

Proofs  of  large  forms  are  sometimes  taken  by 
beating  the  sheet  with  a  stiff  brush.  Beaten  proofs 
are  wearing  to  the  type,  but  the  brush  wears  more 
and  does  not  give  so  fair  a  print.  The  blanket  on 
a  proof -planer  needs  frequent  renewal,  for  it  be- 
comes hard  and  inelastic  after  continued  usage. 
The  sheet  so  proved,  when  dry  enough  to  handle, 
should  be  carefully  folded  by  the  print,  so  as  to 
show  uniform  margins  on  each  page.  The  surplus 
of  paper,  if  any,  at  the  ends  should  be  torn  off  with 
a  straight-edge,  but  the  bolts  that  close  the  paper 
at  head  and  fore  edge  should  not  be  opened. 

The  reader  or  foreman  who  first  examines  the 
proof  unfolds  the  sheet  and  tests  it  for  correctness 
of  margins.  This  he  cannot  do  if  the  bolts  have 
been  opened.  With  the  folded  proof  should  also 
go  to  the  reader's  desk  all  the  copy  for  that  sheet 
laid  in  regular  order.  The  stoneman,  or  the  boy 
that  helps  him,  then  cleans  the  type  with  a  brush 
moistened  with  benzine,  and  afterward  sops  out 
with  a  wet  sponge  the  undissolved  residuum  that 
clings  to  the  shoulders  and  counters  of  the  type. 

This  duty  of  the  stoneman  is  often  half  done.  It 
is  a  mistake  to  think  that  proved  types  have  been 
fairly  cleansed  when  ink  has  been  wiped  off  their 
faces  with  benzine.  The  type  is  not  clean  even  if 
the  face  shows  fairly  white.  The  dirt  of  half -dis- 
solved ink,  and  the  gummy  matter  always  left  after 
21 


322       Types  often  need  alkaline  water 

benzine  has  been  swept  from  the  face,  gradually 
fill  up  the  counters  of  all  the  letters.  Type  that 
has  been  treated  so  repeatedly  will  show  raggedness 
and  dirtiness  about  all  its  lines,  and  the  shallower 
counters  of  letters  like  a,  e,  s  will  fill  up.  The  elec- 
trotyper  will  be  censured  for  faulty  plates,  and  the 
pressman  for  his  muddy  and  overinked  presswork, 
when  the  fault  has  been  created  by  the  stoneman's 
neglect  to  keep  the  types  perfectly  clean.  Type 
often  is  condemned  as  worn  out  when  it  is  only 
filled  up  with  accretions  of  hardened  dirt. 

Types  so  neglected  that  have  received  a  bath  of 
boiling  lye  (which  softens  the  dirt  so  that  it  can  be 
brushed  out)  and  a  thorough  rinsing  with  water 
will  be  restored  to  usefulness.  Benzine  is  a  useful 
detergent,  but  it  does  not  supplant  lye.  Caustic 
potash,  shaved  or  in  powder,  slowly  dissolved  in  al- 
cohol, is  an  excellent  cleanser  of  choked-up  photo- 
engravings.1 

l  Neglect  to  clean  type  and  moistened  with  oil.  His  pur- 
wash  forms  began  with  the  more  pose  was  served  when  the  ink 
extended  use  of  engravings  on  was  rubbed  off  the  face,  but  not 
wood.  Engravers  forbade  the  removed  from  the  form.  He 
use  of  water  that  swelled  and  of  could  not  foresee  that  the  resid- 
lye  that  softened  the  wood.  Al-  uum  left  would  in  time  damage 
cohol  and  a  weak  solution  of  type  as  well  as  cuts.  Instruc- 
ammonia  were  the  only  cleansers  tions  like  these  have  indirectly 
allowed.  This  treatment  made  taught  compositors  to  sacrifice 
difficult  the  proper  cleaning  of  the  durability  of  types  for  an 
the  type  near  the  engravings,  immediate  benefit  to  the  cuts. 
The  photo  -  engraver  of  half-  No  cleanser  can  be  a  perfect 
tones,  fearful  of  the  fragility  of  substitute  for  alkaline  water, 
his  lines,  advised  that  the  sur-  The  form  of  type  intended  for 
plus  ink  left  upon  an  illustration  the  foundry  or  for  press  should 
be  wiped  off  with  soft  flannel  be  drenched  with  water. 


Correction  on  the  stone  323 

The  paper  selected  for  the  proof  should  be  thin, 
smooth,  well-sized,  and  evenly  dampened.  Proofs 
taken  on  dry  paper  are  not  so  satisfactory  to  the 
proof-reader.  The  roller  should  be  kept  clean  and 
tacky,  and  evenly  coated  with  a  film  of  good  ink 
that  has  been  protected  from  dust.  Little  ink,  but 
much  rolling,  is  required;  a  proof  that  is  a  trifle 
pale  in  color  is  always  helpful  to  the  reader  in  his 
search  for  bruised  type.  An  overinked  or  strongly 
indented  proof  prevents  the  finding  of  bad  letters. 

Proof  is  returned,  when  read,  to  the  compositor, 
with  his  name  marked  in  the  margin  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  take,  and  he  is  required  to  correct  it 
immediately,  for  it  is  a  general  rule  that  corrections 
take  precedence  over  all  other  work. 

The  tools  preferred  for  correction  are  the  bodkin 
and  the  tweezers.1  Some  compositors  use  the  point 
of  a  penknife  and  the  nib  of  a  steel  composing-rule, 
but  they  are  mean  substitutes ;  yet  all  correcting- 
tools  will  be  destructive  unless  they  are  carefully 
handled. 

The  correction  of  turned  letters  or  substitutes  of 
one  letter  for  another  of  the  same  thickness  can 
easily  be  made,  but  when  the  marked  letter  is  of  a 

1  The  bodkin  and  the  tweezers  sharp,  curved  points,  put  at  op- 
most  frequently  used  are  too  posite  sides  of  the  body,  will  ena- 
f rail ;  they  often  slip  and  bruise  ble  the  corrector  to  lift  one  type 
adjacent  letters.  When  a  letter  or  an  entire  word  in  a  vertical 
has  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  line.  Types  need  not  be  seri- 
form,  the  straight,  thin -nosed  ously  damaged  in  correction 
pliers  preferred  by  jewellers  are  when  they  are  pulled  up  squarely 
better  tools.  Two  bodkins  with  and  are  not  pried  out  at  an  angle. 


324         When  a  reader  can  be  helpful 

different  thickness,  or  when  one  or  more  letters  are 
to  be  added  or  withdrawn,  the  line  in  which  these 
changes  are  needed  should  be  taken  out  and  put  in 
the  stick  for  correction.  Justifying  on  the  galley 
or  on  the  stone  should  never  be  attempted. 

Correction  on  the  stone  is  always  an  unpleasant 
duty,  but  the  work  may  be  lightened  by  carrying 
corrections  to  the  stone  in  a  paper  tray  which  con- 
tains an  assortment  of  justifying  spaces. 

The  composing-stick,  shooting-stick,  and  mallet 
should  never  be  laid  upon  the  face  of  the  form. 
Each  compositor  should  remove  rejected  type  as 
soon  as  he  has  finished  correction,  and  should  no- 
tify the  compositor  whose  work  follows  to  go  on 
with  his  share  of  the  work. 

Outs  and  doublets  are  difficult  of  correction,  for 
they  require  the  overrunning  of  the  paragraph  in 
which  they  occur,  and  sometimes  the  re-making  up 
and  always  the  re-reading  of  the  form.  These  er- 
rors are  usually  caused  by  the  carelessness  of  the 
compositor,  who  does  not  read  the  matter  in  his 
stick  before  he  puts  it  on  the  galley,  but  the  penalty 
he  has  to  suffer  is  severe.  In  many  offices  it  is  a 
rule  that  he  must  not  only  make  his  work  cor- 
rect, but  he  must  pay  for  the  added  cost  of  the  re- 
make-up and  re-reading.1 

When  corrections  have  been  made,  a  new  proof 

1  On  hurried  newspaper  work  to    make    the    lines    come   out 

the  slow  correction  of  an  out  or  even,  but  this  liberty  can  never 

a  doublet  may  be  evaded,  if  the  be  taken  in  a  faithful  reprint  or 

reader  can  supply  words  enough  in  any  text  of  importance. 


Preparing  forms  for  press  325 

is  taken,  which  is  called  the  first  revise.  The  reader 
compares  the  first  proof  with  its  revise.  If  marked 
errors  have  not  been  corrected,  or  if  corrections 
have  been  made  in  wrong  places,  or  lines  have  been 
transposed,  or  spacing  has  been  made  uneven,  these 
errors  are  marked  on  the  revise  and  sent  back  to 
the  compositor  in  fault.  After  they  have  been  cor- 
rected a  new  proof  is  taken,  which  is  intended  to 
be  and  should  be  literally  correct  to  copy.  This 
proof,  known  as  the  first  author's  proof,  is  sent  to 
the  author  with  the  copy,  after  it  has  been  anno- 
tated with  queries  made  by  the  proof-reader. 

The  author's  proof  often  comes  back  marked  with 
alterations  from  copy.  As  these  alterations  are  not 
caused  by  the  negligence  of  the  compositor  and 
have  not  been  provided  for  in  the  price  agreed  upon 
for  composition,  the  expense  of  making  the  changes 
becomes  an  additional  charge  to  the  author.  The 
author's  proof  is  corrected  by  a  careful  time-hand, 
who  marks  on  the  proof  the  time  it  has  taken  and 
the  date,  and  signs  it  with  his  initials. 

Preparatory  work  that  can  be  done  on  the  stone 
should  be  done  there  before  the  form  is  ordered  to 
press.  To  allow  the  pressman,  whose  time  is  more 
valuable  than  that  of  the  stoneman,  to  correct  gross 
faults  in  margin,  to  alter  the  position  of  pages,  or 
to  insert  the  points  that  may  be  needed  for  regis- 
ter, is  not  far-seeing  management. 

Points  for  type  forms  should  be  inserted  on  the 
stone.  They  are  not  needed  for  trimmed  paper, 


326       Points  often  needed  for  register 

as  an  expert  feeder  can  make  register  by  carefully 
laying  the  sheet  up  to  the  side-guides,  but  they  are 
needed  for  hand-made  papers  of  rough  edges  and 
of  irregular  size,  and  may  be  needed  for  machine- 
made  papers  that  have  been  unevenly  trimmed.1 

The  common  form  of  point  is  a  short,  round 
iron  wire,  pointed  on  one  end  and  a  little  more 
than  type-high,  which  is  usually  inserted  in  holes 
drilled  in  the  centre  of  the  cross-bar  of  the  chase. 
Another  kind  of  point  has  a  screw  base  that  allows 
it  to  be  inserted  anywhere  in  the  wood  furniture 
of  the  form. 

When  the  first  side  of  the  paper  has  been  printed, 
the  points  are  withdrawn.  The  perforations  made 
by  them  serve  as  guides  to  the  feeder  for  the  plac- 
ing of  each  sheet  upon  the  spring  points  attached 
to  the  feed-board.  Properly  used,  the  points  insure 
exact  register.  Points  should  be  placed  in  the  form 
as  may  be  directed  by  the  pressman — about  fifteen 
inches  apart.  For  paper  intended  for  a  folding- 
machine,  exact  position  is  of  utmost  importance, 
and  points  must  be  made  immovable  by  accidental 
disturbance.  Exact  register  may  be  impossible  if 
the  marginal  furniture  is  rearranged  and  the  points 
are  moved  while  on  the  bed  of  the  press. 

Forms  to  be  printed  on  a  cylinder-press  should 
have  the  type  at  a  fixed  distance  from  the  edge  of 

1  When  crookedly  cut  paper  guide,  and  on  the  second  side  to 

cannot  be  retrimmed,  fair  regis-  the  right  guide,  so  that  the  same 

ter  may  be  had  if  the  paper  can  edge  will  always  be  presented  to 

be  fed  on  its  first  side  to  the  left  the  guide. 


Breaking  up  dead  matter  327 

the  chase-frame,  on  the  gripper-edge  of  the  chase. 
The  distance  will  vary  from  two  to  three  inches, 
according  to  the  set  of  the  cylinder.  To  allow  the 
type  to  come  within  this  distance  is  to  expose  it  to 
the  risk  of  being  crushed  by  the  iron  grippers. 
The  stoneman  should  have  a  gauge  made  by  the 
pressman  that  accurately  defines  the  distance. 

The  paper  provided  for  a  form  should  have  at 
least  half  an  inch  of  margin  on  all  sides  of  the 
type.  It  is  practicable  to  print  type  on  the  extreme 
end  of  one  side  only  of  the  sheet — the  side  opposed 
to  the  grippers.  The  half -inch  allowance  is  needed 
for  the  grippers  that  seize  the  sheet,  as  well  as  for 
the  bands  that  keep  the  paper  close  to  the  cylinder. 


CLEARING    AWAY 

An  important  duty  of  the  stoneman  is  the  clearing 
away  of  all  dead  matter.  The  form  that  has  been 
electrotyped  or  printed  and  is  ordered  for  distribu- 
tion comes  back  to  the  stoneman  or  his  helper  to  be 
broken  up.  The  electrotyped  form  is  unlocked  on 
the  stone,  but  its  furniture  and  quoins  are  carefully 
removed  and  kept  together  in  good  order,  so  that 
they  can  be  used  again  for  other  forms  of  the  same 
size.  Its  type  is  put  upon  the  standing  galley  re- 
served for  distribution  after  it  has  been  relieved  of 
its  head-  and  foot-lines  and  other  blanks  that  may 
be  needed  for  future  use  on  the  same  work.  The 
large  form  is  usually  laid  upon  the  letter-board. 


328  Papering  of  dead  matter 

The  letter-board,  which  is  a  movable  board  of  wood, 
is  intended  to  hold  dead  type  after  the  chase  has 
been  removed.  It  is  made  to  slide  upon  cleats 
under  the  frames  of  stones  or  stands.  For  posters 
containing  much  wood  type  and  forms  of  patent 
blocks  the  letter-board  is  useful,  but  for  forms  of 
small  type  it  is  a  mischievous  device,  for  it  gives 
no  proper  protection  to  composed  type  and  invites 
the  making  of  pi.  Forms  of  small  pages  not  in- 
tended for  immediate  distribution  should  be  tied 
up  as  soon  as  they  are  put  upon  the  letter-board. 
A  better  method  would  be  to  put  all  tied-up  or 
standing  jobs  on  the  top  of  the  table  of  a  low  case- 
rack,  where  they  can  be  seen :  the  placing  of  dead 
type  in  dark  corners  or  on  an  obscured  letter-board 
delays  new  composition  and  promotes  disorder. 

£>ead  matter  that  will  not  be  distributed  soon 
should  be  prepared  at  once  for  papering  and  stor- 
age in  the  type-closet.  This  work  begins  by  taking 
out  lines  of  quadrats  and  capitals,  and  everything 
but  the  ordinary  text  type.  Leads,  lines  of  quad- 
rats, capital  letters,  display  letter,  and  unusual  sorts 
of  every  kind  in  masses  should  be  laid  aside  for 
immediate  distribution  by  time-hands.  After  the 
rejects  have  been  culled,  the  matter  saved  should  be 
re-made  up  in  paper  packages,  uniform  as  to  either 
length  or  width,  so  that  they  can  be  neatly  piled 
one  over  another  in  the  type-closet,  without  danger 
of  breaking.  The  paper  wrapper  should  be  plainly 
marked  in  ink  with  the  proper  name  of  the  face 


Useful  sorts  not  to  be  papered        329 

and  the  body  of  the  type,  not  omitting  the  number 
of  nicks.  A  package  so  made  up  and  labelled  need 
not  be  opened  for  a  reexamination.  Display  let- 
ter, quadrats,  figures,  and  any  sort  in  limited  sup- 
ply, should  never  be  papered  when  there  is  room 
for  them  in  the  open  cases.  Materials  for  regular 
use  should  always  be  made  accessible. 

The  old  rule  that  required  piece-compositors  to 
clear  away  all  the  matter  in  the  dead  form,  and  to 
distribute  large  masses  of  strange  types  that  were 
not  immediately  needed,  is  no  longer  enforced.  It 
is  now  the  custom  to  have  dead  matter  that  is  over- 
full of  italic,  accents,  display  letter,  small  caps,  etc., 
distributed  by  the  time-hands.  It  is  expected,  how- 
ever, that  the  piece-compositor  will  distribute  type 
taken  from  the  closet,  and  not  be  too  punctilious 
in  refusing  the  distribution  of  a  moderate  amount 
of  unusual  sorts.  It  is  to  the  interest  of  all  persons 
that  these  sorts  should  be  returned  at  once  to  case, 
for  it  is  but  just  that  the  compositor  who  has  been 
provided,  as  is  usual,  with  special  sorts  from  the 
storage  case  should  return  them  to  that  case. 

The  type -closet  should  have  separate  compart- 
ments of  stout  wood  for  each  face  and  body  of  type 
that  may  be  kept  on  storage  or  out  of  case,  each 
compartment  firmly  braced  and  fitted  to  sustain 
heavy  weight.  A  printed  label  should  be  affixed 
in  proper  place,  specifying  on  each  compartment 
with  exactness  the  name,  face,  and  body  of  the  type, 
and  the  number  of  nicks. 


330     Places  for  chases  and  chase-racks 

The  chase-rack  is  reserved  for  forms  of  type  that 
await  reading  or  distribution.  It  is  often  placed 
under  the  imposing-stone,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
illustration  on  page  290.  For  electrotype  chases  of 
the  same  size,  a  chase-rack  can  be  made  by  screwing 
to  the  floor  and  to  the  bottom  of  the  imposing-table 
parallel  rows  of  stout  oak  cleats  about  two  inches 
broad.  The  chase  nested  to  stand  upright  without 
other  support  will  slide  and  be  secure  in  the  grooves 
made  by  the  cleats.  For  all  chases  of  irregular  size 
it  is  necessary  to  attach  the  upper  cleat  to  a  frame 
that  has  diagonal  divisions  and  inclined  shelves  or 
supports.  Small  chases  can  be  arranged  in  two 
tiers.  If  space  will  allow,  the  chase-rack  could  be 
advantageously  placed  against  a  dead  wall,  if  that 
dead  wall  receives  a  fair  light.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
put  it  in  any  dark  place,  where  the  forms  must  be 
examined  with  inconvenience  and  possible  injury. 
In  some  book -printing  houses  the  different  duties 
of  the  maker-up  and  the  stoneman  are  made  inter- 
changeable so  that  they  may  be  done  by  one  per- 
son. In  all  houses  the  stoneman  should  be  a  com- 
positor of  experience  and  intelligence,  who  knows 
how  to  adapt  means  to  ends,  and  is  not  content  to 
work  by  rote  and  rule  only.  He  should  work  in 
concord  with  every  contributor  to  the  book,  from 
publisher  to  bookbinder,  for  he  can  help  or  hinder 
them  in  many  ways. 


IX 


IMPOSITION 

Elementary  principles  .  .  .  Schemes  for  various  forms  from 
two  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  -  eight  pages  .  .  .  Inset 
forms  .  .  .  Oblong  pages  .  .  .  The  leaflet  .  .  .  Small  pam- 
phlets .  .  .  New  method  of  collating  .  .  .  Folding-machines 
Concluding  remarks 

ELEMENTARY   PRINCIPLES 


IMPOSITION  is  a  puzzle  to  the 
novice.  He  does  not  see  why 
pages  apparently  laid  out  of 
order  on  the  stone  fall  in  order 
on  the  printed  and  folded  sheet. 
He  may  learn  to  impose  by  imi- 
tating the  practice  of  an  expert 
or  by  copying  schemes  from  some  printers'  gram- 
mar, but  knowledge  so  acquired  has  limited  appli- 
cation. Large  sizes  and  strange  shapes  of  paper, 

331 


332        Number  of  leaves  to  the  section 

combinations  of  two  or  more  sections  for  printing 
on  one  sheet,  rotary  printing-machines,  and  new 
forms  of  folding- machines  compel  the  occasional 
devising  of  new  schemes.  It  is  better  to  begin 
with  the  study  of  customary  methods  of  folding. 

Begin  with  folding  blank  paper  for  three  differ- 
ent sections  of  8, 16,  and  32  pages  (without  cutting 
open  the  folds  or  bolts),  and  by  pencilling  upon  the 
leaves  so  produced  the  numbers  of  pages  in  proper 
order.  The  sheet  so  treated  when  unfolded  will 
show  the  relative  position  of  mated  pages,  and  this 
will  give  insight  into  the  rudiments  of  imposition. 

The  first  lesson  to  be  learned  is  that  too  many 
pages  cannot  be  properly  folded  together  in  one 
section  for  correct  book- work :  8  pages  are  enough 
for  thick  paper,  and  16  pages  for  paper  of  ordinary 
thickness.  Whoever  tries  to  fold  correctly  by  one 
operation  32  pages  of  paper  in  one  section  will  find 
that  the  paper  buckles  at  the  head  fold  of  inner 
leaves,  and  that  they  are  thrust  outward  at  an 
angle  that  makes  the  type- work  seem  crooked.1 

1  The  central  double  leaf  (pages  rower  than  that  of  the  outer  leaf. 

15-18)  is  unavoidably  thrust  out-  On  a  large  page  this  difference  in 

ward  by  the  thickness  of  its  pre-  margin  maybe  unnoticeable,  but 

ceding  seven  leaves.     This  leaf  when  paper  is  thick  and  the  page 

is  held  tight  at  the  head  by  un-  is  small  it  will  be  noticed.     The 

stretchable  paper  where  it  has  inner  leaves  of  the  section  must 

been  creased  for  the  head  fold,  be  crooked,  narrower  at  the  top 

but  it  is  thrust  outward  at  tail  than  at  the  bottom.    Making  up 

more  than  the  thickness  of  the  the  form  in  two  sections  of  16 

preceding  leaves.  When  stitched  pages  will  prevent  the  crooked- 

and  trimmed,  the  front  margin  ness,  but  the  margins  of  the  in- 

on  this  inner  leaf  must  be  nar-  terior  16  pages  must  be  narrower. 


Sections  always  of  double  leaves       333 

Sheets  of  24,  32,  48,  64,  96,  and  even  of  128  pages 
can  be,  and  often  are,  printed  in  one  form,  but  for 
the  sewed  book  they  are  never  imposed  to  be  con- 
secutively folded  together  by  one  operation.  The 
printed  sheet  of  many  pages  is  subdivided,  and  each 
section  is  separately  folded.1  The  newer  styles  of 
folding-machines  made  for  pamphlet- work  can  fold 
a  form  of  two  or  more  portions  simultaneously  and 
inset  one  within  another,  but  each  portion  receives 
separate  treatment.  It  should  be  understood  at 
the  outset  that  in  book-work  an  imposition  of  many 
pages  in  one  form  is  not  for  one  consecutive  fold- 
ing ;  it  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more  portions  to 
be  separately  folded  and  afterward  united. 

When  the  different  sections  of  a  book  have  been 
gathered,  folded,  sewed,  and  trimmed,  each  section 
is  resolved  into  a  combination  of  double  leaves 
nested  one  within  another  and  held  together  and 
to  other  sections  by  thread.  The  double  leaf  that 
permits  the  binding-thread  to  pass  through  the  fold 
of  each  section  in  the  creased  centre  of  the  back 

i  Sometimes,  as  in  the  12mo,  with  thread,  either  by  hand  or  by 
the  section  consists  of  two  un-  machine,  and  sections  must  not 
equal  parts,  one  of  8  and  one  of  be  too  thick  in  the  back.  Even 
4  pages,  and  each  part  is  sepa-  in  the  ordinary  sewed  section  of 
rately  folded,  so  that  the  smaller  16  pages,  to  stop  buckling  on  the 
can  be  inserted  in  the  larger  part,  inner  fold,  it  is  often  necessary 
In  cheap  pamphlet- work  a  sec-  to  slit  the  paper  on  the  cross-fold 
tion  of  32  pages  may  be  made  by  at  head  before  the  last  fold  is 
insetting  one  subsection  of  16  made.  This  prevents  wrinkling, 
pages  within  another  section  of  but  it  does  not  entirely  prevent 
16  pages,  but  these  thick  sections  an  appearance  of  slight  crooked- 
are  not  tolerated  in  book-work,  ness  in  the  margins  of  the  inner 
The  library  book  must  be  sewed  leaves. 


334      Books  are  sewed,  not  side-stitched 

margin  is  the  most  approved  method  of  giving 
proper  security  to  the  binding.  It  may  be  assumed 
that  in  all  schemes  of  book  imposition  (the  half- 
sheet  of  18mo  excepted)  each  section  must  contain 
double  leaves.  The  leaves  are  always  in  doubles, 
and  the  number  of  pages  in  approved  schemes  of 
imposition  are  always  multiples  of  four.1 

The  double  leaves  in  each  section  show  that  they 
bear  relation  one  to  another.  In  the  ordinary  8vo, 
pages  1-2  and  pages  7-8  constitute  the  outer  double 
leaf  j  in  the  16mo,  pages  1-2  and  pages  15-16  con- 
stitute the  outer  double  leaf.  Schemes  for  laying 
pages  differ  greatly,  but  the  relative  position  of  the 
first  two  and  the  last  two  pages  of  a  section  is  un- 
alterable in  any  scheme.  A  closer  study  of  the  dif- 
ferent schemes  yet  to  be  presented  will  show  that 
these  pages  and  other  pages  have  relations  to  one 
another  that  cannot  be  disturbed  by  any  variation 
in  the  scheme  of  imposition. 

i  The  single  leaf  of  two  pages  neatly  fastened  by  the  sewing- 
that  may  appear  in  the  pamphlet  thread  through  the  centre  of  the 
of  a  half -sheet  18mo  is  pasted  lap.  Single  leaves  of  two  pages 
down  on  an  adjacent  leaf.  This  can  be  securely  fastened  to  other 
single  leaf  also  has  to  be  accepted  sections  by  side  -  stitching  with 
for  inserted  maps  or  prints  made  wire  or  thread  through  the  back 
by  different  processes  of  print-  margins  of  all  the  sections.  Side- 
ing,  but  pasting  or  tipping  on  is  stitching  is  a  method  of  binding 
always  regarded  as  a  misfortune  at  present  unavoidable  in  maga- 
to  be  avoided.  To  prevent  the  zines  of  large  edition  or  in  pam- 
bad  workmanship  produced  by  phlets  that  have  to  be  made  in 
pasting  down  the  single  leaf  of  great  haste,  but  it  has  serious 
a  map  or  print,  it  is  often  printed  defects  :  it  reduces  the  width  of 
separately  on  a  wider  paper,  and  the  back  margin,  and  prevents 
a  narrow  lap  is  creased  on  its  leaves  from  opening  flat.  It  is 
extra  width,  so  that  it  can  be  never  used  for  library  books. 


Folds  of  paper  control  imposition      335 

All  schemes  may  be  grouped  in  these  four  classes : 

1  Forms  of  4,  8,  16,  32,  64,  96,  and  128  pages. 
The  sheet  of  16  pages  is  usually  imposed  to  be 
folded  together  as  one  section,  the  sheet  of  32  pages 
is  often  cut  to  make  two  sections,  and  that  of  64  for 
four  sections. 

2  Forms  of  12  or  24  pages,  and  their  multiples. 
In  forms  of  this  class  one  third  of  the  paper  is  cut 
off  and  folded  separately  as  an  inset  to  be  nested 
in  the  two-third  portion.     In  the  form  of  12mo  the 
cut-off  is  on  the  narrow  side  j  in  the  24mo  on  the 
wide  side  of  the  sheet;  but  forms  of  duplicate 
twelves,  as  in  48  and  72,  are  seldom  imposed  for 
offcuts  and  insets :  it  is  customary  to  impose  them 
as  sections  of  16mo.     Preference  is  always  given 
to  the  16mo  section  wherever  its  use  is  practicable. 

3  Forms  of  18,  36,  and  72  pages.     Sheets  printed 
on  forms  of  this  class  are  usually  cut  in  unequal 
sections  taken  respectively  from  the  broad  and  the 
narrow  end  of  the  paper,  and  are  separately  folded 
by  hand.     The  18mo  of  one  signature,  never  used 
in  careful  book- work,  contains  a  single  leaf  that 
must  be  tipped  on  the  section. 

4  Forms  of  20  and  40  pages.     Printed  sheets  of 
these  forms  have  one  fifth  of  the  paper  cut  off  from 
one  end  of  the  sheet,  and  this  one-fifth  subsection 
of  the  sheet  is  separately  folded  for  an  inset. 

The  consecutive  folding  of  a  sheet,  first  through 
its  narrower  diameter  and  next  at  right  angles 
with  its  previous  fold,  as  is  done  in  8vo  and  16mo 


336     Sheet  and  half-sheet  misleading  words 

forms,  is  the  simplest  method  and  produces  the  best 
work.  Forms  of  the  second  class  are  more  trouble- 
some, but  they  have  to  be  used  when  paper  permit- 
ting the  16mo  folds  is  not  to  be  had,  and  when  a 
press  to  take  on  16  pages  is  not  available.  Forms 
of  the  third  and  fourth  classes  are  rarely  used,  but 
are  needed  for  pages  or  paper  of  unusual  shape. 

Schemes  of  imposition  are  also  known  as  sheets 
or  half -sheets.1  The  pages  of  the  sheet  are  always 
imposed  as  two  forms  in  two  chases,  and  each  form 
is  separately  printed.  The  side  that  contains  the 
first  and  last  pages  of  the  section  is  the  outer  form ; 
the  side  partly  concealed  by  the  folding-bolts  is  the 
inner  form.  The  printed  sheet  made  perfect  by 
two  forms  is  known  as  a  sheet,  and  this  method  of 
doing  presswork  is  known  as  sheetwise. 

The  pages  of  the  half-sheet  imposition  are  always 
imposed  in  one  chase.  The  paper  selected  for  it  is 
consequently  twice  the  bigness  of  the  sheet  printed 
from  two  forms,  and  its  printing  on  the  two  sides 
of  the  paper  from  the  same  pages  necessarily  makes 
two  copies  to  the  sheet.  It  is  called  half-sheet  be- 
cause this  larger  sheet  must  be  cut  in  halves  before 
either  half  can  be  folded. 

Sheetwise  printing  was  unavoidable  when  sheets 
were  of  small  size  and  presswork  was  done  on  small 

l  Sheet  and"  half-sheet  are  mis-  but  I  shall  try  to  prevent  any 

leading  words:  they  should  be  misunderstanding  in  description 

sheet  and  double  sheet.   It  is  im-  by  specifying  the    number   of 

practicable  to  ignore  them,  for  pages  to  the  form  and  the  num- 

they  have  been  used  too  long,  ber  of  sections  to  the  sheet. 


Some  rules  controlling  imposition      337 

hand-presses,  but  the  cylinder  machine,  that  prints 
16  and  32  large  octavo  pages  at  one  impression, 
has  made  the  half -sheet  method  more  common.1 


FORMS  OF  FOUR  AND  EIGHT  PAGES 

The  four  pages  of  the  folio  newspaper  are  usually 
put  in  two  chases  and  are  laid  down  in  this  order : 

1-  —  4  3  —          —  2 


Outer  form.  Inner  form. 

1  Four  pages  in  two  forms  and  two  chases. 

This  scheme  exemplifies  rules  that  control  imposi- 
tion in  every  form,  however  large  that  form  may  be. 

The  first  page  is  usually  laid  down  on  the  stone 
at  the  left  corner.  As  printing  reverses  position 
in  print,  the  left-hand  page  of  type  in  the  form 
will  be  the  right-hand  page  of  print. 

The  last  page  of  every  section  is  always  nearest 
to  and  is  the  mate  of  its  first  page. 

All  odd  pages  are  imposed  to  read  from  back 
to  front ;  even  pages  from  front  to  back. 


1  Each  method  has  advantages 
and  disadvantages.  Sheetwise 
presswork  allows  the  printed  ink 
of  the  first  form  to  dry  before 
the  sheet  is  backed  up  on  the 
other  form,  but  it  also  allows 
wet  paper  to  shrink,  and  gives 
more  trouble  in  making  register. 
22 


Half -sheet  presswork  on  short 
editions  may  not  allow  ink  to  dry 
thoroughly,  but  it  gives  to  the 
pressman  at  the  outset  more  con- 
trol of  register ;  it  enables  him  to 
maintain  more  even  color,  and 
to  make  sure  of  full  count  before 
he  lifts  the  form  from  press. 


338      Relations  of  pages  one  to  another 

When  the  page  figures  in  every  two  mated  pages 
(those  side  by  side  and  nearest  to  each  other)  are 
added,  the  result  of  this  addition  is  one  more  than 
the  total  number *  of  the  pages  in  that  section. 

To  print  four  pages  by  one  impression,  the  pages 

must  be  put  in  one  chase  to  be  printed  on  paper  of 

double  size.    The  sheet  so  imposed  is 

known  as  a  half -sheet  of  4to,  because 

it  produces,  when  the  sheet  has  been 

printed  on  both  sides,  eight  pages  of 

riri,1!!    i:=r      print,  or  duplicates  of  the  four  pages 

in  the  shape  of  two  half -sheets.  After 

,™,,,    ,,,^:,,,,m      ^e  PaPer  nas  been  printed  on  one 

side,  the  pressman  turns  the  sheet 

upside   down  and   "  end  for   end," 

;'"""      which  operation  puts  the  edge  A  in 

the  position  before  occupied  by  edge 

2in  one  chafe!*     B,  and  vice  versa.     This  makes  him 

print  page  1  upon  the  back  of  page  2, 

1  The  operation  of  this  rule  The  result  of  each  addition  will 

may  be  seen  more  clearly  in  the  be  25,  one  more  than  the  total 

separation  of  a  section  of  several  number  of  pages  in  the  section, 

pages :  Take  an  ordinary  quarter  The    relative    position    of    the 

quire  of  six  double  leaves  and  mated  pages  cannot  be  changed 

page  them  consecutively  as  if  in  any  scheme  of  imposition; 

they  were  the  cut  leaves  of  a  they  are  mates  and  always  must 

sheet  of  24mo.     Then  separate  be  mates.    An  understanding  of 

the  double  leaves  and  add  to-  this  rule  will  often  prevent  the 

gether  the  paging  figures  of  the  novice  from  laying  down  a  page 

mated  pages :  in  a  wrong  position.    If  in  the 

half-sheet  of  24mo  he  has  laid 

10-15  down  15  or  17  by  the  side  of  9,  he 

2—23    5—20    B— 17    11—14  wiU  know  by  mental  calculation 

3—22    6—19    9—16    12—13  that  the  page  is  wrongly  placed. 


Turning  on  the  short  cross  339 

and  page  4  upon  the  back  of  page  3.  Paper  so 
treated  is  said  to  be  "turned  on  the  short  cross/7 
or  the  short  cross-bar  of  the  chase.  When  printed 
on  the  second  side,  the  sheet  is  cut  in  two,  and  each 
half-sheet  is  the  duplicate  of  the  other  half. 

This  half-sheet  of  quarto  can  also  be  printed  in 
one  form  from  a  long  and  narrow  strip  of  paper 
by  imposing  the  pages  in  this  manner : 

1-          _4;3-          -2 


3    Four  pages  in  one  chase,  long  way. 


1  — 


4    Four  pages  in  one  chase, 
imposed  from  the  centre.1 

To  impose  with  propriety  any  form  that  has  to 
be  made  perfect  upon  pages  in  the  same  chase,  it 
should  be  known  at  the  outset  whether  the  sheet 
will  be  perfected  by  turning  it  on  the  short  cross 
or  the  long  cross.  The  turn  on  the  short  cross  is 

1  Scheme  4  is  not  so  generally  collect  at  the  ends  of  the  inking 
acceptable  as  Scheme  3,  but  it  rollers,  and  as  excess  of  ink  on 
may  be  used  with  advantage  open  pages  is  a  trouble  to  the 
when  the  inner  pages  1  and  2  pressman,  it  is  sometimes  of  ad- 
are  open  and  the  outer  pages  3  vantage  to  put  solid  pages  at  the 
and  4  are  solid.  As  ink  tends  to  ends  of  the  form. 


340  Thick  sections  a  fault 

always  preferred,  for  it  allows  the  pressman  to 
keep  the  same  edge  of  the  sheet  to  the  feed-guides.1 

Before  any  scheme  of  imposition  is  determined 
for  a  large  form,  the  thickness  of  the  paper  should 
be  known.  If  there  are  too  few  pages  to  a  section, 
there  will  be  too  many  sections  in  the  bool?,  the 
cost  of  sewing  will  be  largely  increased,  and  the 
book  will  be  made  bunchy  at  the  back  by  excess 
of  thread.  If  too  many  pages  are  put  in  a  sec- 
tion, the  sheet  will  buckle  or  wrinkle  at  the  head 
of  the  innermost  fold ;  all  leaves  will  open  stiffly, 
showing  the  sewing-thread;  and  the  inner  leaves 
will  protrude  unequally  and  have  margins  askew.2 

Scheme  5,  on  the  next  page,  shows  that  this  form 
of  64  pages,  when  backed  on  itself,  has  to  be  cut  in 
eight  sections  to  make  four  duplicates  of  16  pages. 

1  The   turning    of  the   sheet  trimming  are  never  so  neat  as 
on  the   long  cross,   sometimes  those  of  sections  of  8  and  16. 
unavoidable,  is  unwillingly  ac-  Thick  sections  are  never  to  be 
cepted  by  the  pressman,  for  it  seen  in  the  books  made  for  the 
compels  him  to  present  another  library  by  reputable  publishers, 
edge  of  the  paper  to  the  feed-  Although  sections  of  16  pages 
guides  when  he  prints  the  sec-  are  more  used  than  any  other, 
ond  side.    A  new  feeding-edge  these  sections   are   not  always 
may  compel  him  to  register  by  printed  on  separate  sheets.    A 
points,  a  much  slower  process.  section  of  16  pages  may  be  a  part 

2  Books  or  pamphlets  to  be  dis-  of  a  form  of  48,  64,  or  96  pages, 
tributed  gratuitously,  and  that  Even  in  the  thick  pamphlets  of 
must  be  made  at  the  smallest  48  pages  intended  to  be  centre- 
cost,  like  almanacs,  trade  cata-  stitched  in  one  section,  the  pages 
logues,   and   advertisements  of  are,  as  a  rule,  laid  so  that  the 
patent  medicines,  are  often  made  sheet  will  be  cut  in  thirds,  mak- 
up  in  thick  sections  to  save  ex-  ing  three  sections  of  16.    Each 
pense  in  sewing.     Sections  of  32  section  is  separately  folded ;  the 
and  48  pages  are  not  uncommon,  second  is  nested  in   the  first, 
but  their  folding,  sewing,  and  and  the  third  in  the  second. 


ei 
10 


tt 
11 


te 

39 


•At 
42 


43—    — 


81 
23 


18 
26 


08 

27 


61 

22 


OS 
55 


89 

58 


59—    — 


j^ 


85  — 
29  — 


IS 
20 


9S  — 
49  — 


8  —    —  6 
1  —    —16 


31  — 
13  — 


ot  — 

33  — 


—  LQ 

—  64 


61  — 


—  8S 

—  52 


—  It 

—  48 


tt  —    —  Z-8 
45  —    —  36 


1  3 

5    Sixty-four  pages  in  one  chase :  four  sections  of  16  pages. 
341 


342         Furniture  for  marginal  space 

In  ordinary  forms  of  half -sheet  presswork,  page  2 
is  put  in  an  opposite  corner  or  in  a  contrary  direc- 
tion from  page  1,  so  that  the  backing  of  the  sheet 
will  bring  page  2  on  the  back  of  page  1 ;  and  the 
first  folding  of  the  sheet  at  a  right  angle  will  bring 
3  opposite  2  j  and  the  last  cross-fold  will  bring  page 
9  opposite  8.  That  done,  all  intermediate  pages 
are  in  order.  The  even  page  will  back  an  odd  page 
when  the  sheet  has  been  turned,  and  the  following 
odd  page  will  face  the  even  page  when  another 
regular  fold  has  been  made.  This  repeated  cross- 
folding  of  the  sheet  brings  the  innermost  pages 
within  the  interior  of  the  section,  so  that  the  last 
four  leaves  will  be  mates  of  the  first  four  leaves. 
In  every  imposition,  whether  in  the  "  usual  way  n  or 
"  from  the  centre,"  long  fold  or  cross  fold,  the 
pages  must  occupy  the  same  relative  position  one  to 
another,  however  peculiar  the  scheme  or  however 
large  the  number  of  pages  in  the  form.1 

1  It  is  to  be  supposed  that  a  not  be  accurately  measured  or 
diagram  has  been  previously  specified  on  the  diagram  are  the 
given  to  the  maker-up  to  define  thin  pieces  nearest  to  the  cross- 
the  shape  of  the  page  and  to  bars,  which  will  be  of  varying 
specify  the  width  of  the  mar-  width  to  suit  the  variable  thick 
gins  about  the  pages.  This  dia-  ness  of  the  cross-bars.  The  head- 
gram  sheet  should  be  prepared  bolts  and  thin  cross-bar  pieces 
in  the  office  or  by  the  foreman  can  be  put  in  their  places  af  ter- 
bef  ore  the  pages  are  made  up.  ward.  A  sheet  of  the  paper  to  be 
To  require  the  stoneman  or  the  printed  should  also  be  furnished 
maker-up  to  cut  furniture  and  to  the  stoneman.  The  proper  ad- 
determine  margins  will  be  found  justmentof  margins  by  this  sheet 
wasteful  of  time  and  productive  has  been  illustrated  on  pages  299, 
of  error.  The  furniture  should  303,  and  304  of  this  book.  Ex- 
be  selected  before  the  pages  are  actness  in  measurement  by  this 
laid.  The  only  pieces  that  can-  sheet  is  of  great  importance. 


Chases  to  be  carefully  selected        343 

In  the  ordinary  imposition  of  16mo,  page  1  appears 
in  print  upon  the  first  leaf  of  the  first  half  of  the 
sheet  that  has  opened  leaves  on  the  front,  and 
page  9  upon  the  first  leaf  of  the  other  half  of  the 
sheet  that  is  closed  by  the  bolts  of  folded  leaves. 
But  the  pages  can  be  imposed  to  be  folded  in  another 
way :  page  1  can  be  placed  on  the  leaf  taken  by  page 
9  in  the  usual  scheme  of  imposition.  When  pages 
have  been  so  placed  and  the  sheet  is  folded  in  this 
reversed  way,  the  first  leaf  of  the  bolted  half  is 
thereby  made  page  1.  (See  Scheme  18.)  This  method 
of  reversing  is  called  imposing  from  the  centre.1 

When  the  pages  have  been  truly  laid  on  the  stone, 
the  furniture  selected  should  be  put  next  to  the 
pages.  It  is  to  be  supposed  that  the  length  and 
width  of  each  piece  have  been  previously  determined, 
so  that  no  piece  will  interfere  with  another,  and 
that  all  will  yield  gently  to  the  pressure  of  lock- 
ing up. 

The  selection  of  the  chase  is  next  in  order.  Pages 
to  be  electrotyped  are  usually  imposed  in  chases  of 
cast-iron  that  hold  two  or  four  8vo  or  three,  six, 
or  eight  12mo  pages.  These  chases  should  have 

1  The  odd  page  put  down  in  machines  have  to  put  page  1  in 

an  ordinary  scheme  of  imposi-  some  other  position   to  enable 

tion  of  16mo  as  3,  5,  7,  or  9  can  them  to  make  use  of  proper  me- 

be  used  to  place  the  first  page,  chanical  motions  in  the  machine, 

if  following  pages  are  put  in  It  should  be  clearly  understood 

correspondingly  reversed  posi-  that  a  changing  of  the  position  of 

tions.  Page  1  in  the  outer  corner  page  1  to  the  place  usually  occu- 

of  the  sheet  is  most  acceptable  pied  by  some  other  odd  page  will 

to  folders  by  hand,  but  the  mak-  compel  corresponding   changes 

ers  of  a  few  of  the  newer  folding-  of  position  in  every  other  page. 


344      Cross-bars  need  testing  iqith  square 

frames  about  one  and  a  half  inches  wide  and  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  high,  to  enable  the  iron  fairly 
to  resist  the  great  pressure  put  on  the  form  by  the 
moulding-press.  The  old  cast-iron  chase  for  plaster 
stereotype,  with  frame  one  inch  wide  and  two  thirds 
of  an  inch  high,  that  still  survives  in  some  houses, 
is  liable  to  crack  under  this  pressure.  If  the  chase 
is  not  square,  the  plate  will  not  be  square.1 

The  form  of  four  or  eight  small  pages,  made  up 
for  letterpress,  may  be  imposed  in  a  cast-iron  chase, 
but  cast-iron  is  not  to  be  trusted  for  any  large  book 
form.  When  the  form  is  locked  up,  the  frame  will 
bend  outward  in  the  middle  on  each  side,  putting 
pages  out  of  line  and  making  register  difficult.  For 
all  forms  containing  many  pages,  and  even  for 
forms  of  few  pages  that  call  for  exact  register,  the 
wrought-iron  chase,  with  slotted  and  dovetailed 
cross-bars,  should  be  selected  to  prevent  the  out- 
ward bending  of  the  chase  frame  and  to  provide 
right-angled  sides  as  resists  to  the  pressure  pro- 
duced with  side-sticks  and  quoins.  The  chase  se- 
lected should  be  tested  by  a  square  on  the  interior 
angles  made  by  cross-bars.  If  the  dovetails  do 
not  fit  snugly,  or  if  the  slots  at  the  intersection  of 
the  bars  are  loose  and  wabbly,  these  faults  should 

l  Trustworthy  apparatus,  the  noticed.  Authors  and  publishers 
first  condition  of  good  printing,  of  to-day  are  much  more  critical, 
is  needed  now  more  than  ever.  A  slight  deviation  from  square- 
When  presswork  was  done  from  ness  repeated  on  the  pages  of  a 
small  forms  upon  small  hand-  large  form  is  not  only  offensive 
presses,  out-of-squareness  in  a  to  the  reader,  but  is  a  hindrance 
page  or  a  form  often  passed  un-  to  the  pressman  and  binder. 


Stamped  numbers  on  cross-bars       345 

be  corrected  at  once.1    They  cannot  be  corrected 
properly  after  the  form  has  been  locked  up. 

The  methods  that  are  customary  in  the  imposi- 
tion of  large  forms  are  sometimes  unwisely  neg- 
lected in  small  forms.  A  circular  of 
two  pages,  to  be  printed  on  the  first 
and  third  pages  of  the  sheet  by  one 
impression,  should  be  imposed  in  one 
form  as  four  pages  of  4to.  Two  pages 
of  blanks  should  be  made  up  to  repre- 
sent pages  2  and  4,  and  be  imposed 
as  if  they  were  pages  of  type.  To 
impose  the  third  page  by  guessing  6  A  circular  of 
at  the  blank  required  for  head  and  p^nf  onTrs^' and 
back  margins  is  never  a  safe  process,  third  pages. 
The  blank  pages  are  really  needed  as  guides  to 
correct  position. 


i  — 


l  Chases  with  shifting  cross- 
bars seldom  receive  proper  care. 
The  chases  and  their  detached 
bars  are  usually  stood  up  against 
a  dead  wall,  where  they  are  bent 
by  the  superincumbent  weight 
of  other  chases  and  bars  piled 
against  them.  They  are  often 
allowed  to  get  bruised  and  rusty. 
The  bars  are  sometimes  used  as 
pokers  or  levers.  Bars  made  for 
one  chase  are  sometimes  vio- 
lently forced  into  another;  slots 
and  dovetails  may  be  reflled  and 
clumsily  altered.  Under  this 
rough  treatment  the  chase  may 
be  twisted  and  made  more  crook- 
ed than  the  cast-iron  chase. 

Chases  should  be  bought  with 


system ;  there  need  not  be  many 
sizes,  but  there  should  be  many 
of  the  same  size.  As  cross-bars 
are  not  made  interchangeable, 
each  bar  should  have  its  own 
number  stamped  on  its  dovetail, 
and  on  the  frame  nearest  to  its 
corresponding  slot  in  the  chase. 
Under  no  circumstances  should 
the  cross-bar  made  for  one  chase 
be  forced  into  another  chase,  for 
this  change  damages  two  chases. 
When  many  chases  of  one  size 
are  provided,  and  each  chase  is 
numbered,  the  time  spent  by  the 
stoneman  in  fitting  new  forms 
with  furniture  and  by  the  press- 
man in  adjusting  margins  will 
be  sensibly  diminished. 


346 


Small  sheets  with  insets 


INSET    FOLIOS    OF    USUAL    FORM 

Account-books  and  diaries  are  sometimes  printed 
on  single  sheets  of  flat  cap  (14  X  17  inches),  with 
dates  and  figures  following  one  another  in  proper 
order.  The  sheet  of  small  size  is  selected  because 
editions  are  small,  and  larger  paper  may  not  be 
had  of  proper  size,  weight,  and  quality.  Sheets  so 
treated  are  usually  made  up  in  sections  of  fives, 
and  are  sewed  in  the  usual  way  through  the  longer 
fold.  The  heads  of  pages  must  be  kept  in  parallel 
line,  but  the  arrangement  of  pages  in  other  features 
does  not  differ  from  that  laid  down  for  the  legal 
folio.  To  prevent  error,  a  dummy  of  each  section 
should  be  made  on  leaves  of  blank  paper,  properly 
paged  in  writing,  so  that  the  dummy  will  serve  as 
a  guide  to  stoneman,  pressman,  and  proof-reader. 
For  the  first  section  the  order  will  be : 


First  sheet.        Second  sheet. 
1          20  3          18 


Third  sheet. 
5          16 


Fourth  sheet. 

7          14 


Fifth  sheet. 
9          12 


L\ 


Outer  forms. 


9          QT 
Inner  forms. 


01 


7     An  inset  folio  of  20  pages  in  ten  forms. 
Signatures  at  the  tail  of  each  sheet  are  seldom 
made,  but  they  may  be  helpful  to  an   inexpert. 


The  legal  folio  347 

The  legal  folio  is  preferred  by  lawyers  for  docu- 
ments, and  is  usually  printed  in  four-page  forms 
imposed  the  long  way  on  the  size  of  paper  known 
as  double  legal-cap,  16  X  26  inches.  It  reverses 
the  usual  methods  of  book-work.  Its  leaves  are 
fastened  at  the  heads  of  odd  pages ;  the  heads  of 
odd  pages  are  backed  upon  the  tails  of  even  pages ; 
its  print  is  read  by  turning  the  leaves  the  long  way 
on  the  short  fold ;  it  has  a  wider  margin  at  the  left 
than  at  the  right  of  the  page.  The  number  of 
copies  ordered  is  usually  too  small  to  warrant  the 
imposition  of  more  than  four  pages  to  the  form, 
even  when  there  may  be  six  or  more  sheets  for 
the  document.  It  is  always  imposed  to  be  sewed, 
stitched,  or  eyeleted  together  in  one  section  only, 
whether  that  section  contains  few  or  many  pages. 
To  produce  the  wider  margin  required  at  the 
left  of  each  page,  the  furniture  selected  for  the 

gutters  must  be  about  twice  as  wide     * ;    

as  that  given  to  the  ordinary  side- 
sewed  book.  The  pressman  can  keep 

equal  outer  margins.     As  the  sheet  g"" 

is  creased  or  folded  at  the  head,  the     1 j    ,„ 

head-bolt  should  be  much  wider 
than  is  customary  in  the  ordinary 
imposition.  Each  sheet  turns  on  the  '"'"^ ""' 

long  cross,  the  duplicates  so  made      8   Legal  folio 
being  separated  by  cutting  through        of  4  Pages- 
the  longer  fold.    This  cut  should  be  made  with  pre- 
cision, for  the  margins  will  not  permit  retrimming. 


348  Eight  oblong  pages 


First  sheet.  Second  sheet.  Third  sheet.  Fourth  sheet. 

16  14  12  10 


SI  81  tt 


Z  t  9 

9    Legal  folio  of  16  pages,  imposed  for  insets. 


MUSIC    OR    OBLONG    WAY 

Some  books  of  music  and  of  maps  or  illustrations 
are  planned  for  a  short  and  broad  page  that  must 
be  sewed  on  the  narrower  side 
of  the  leaf.  The  section  so 
treated,  known  as  of  oblong 
shape,  requires  a  different  im- 
position of  the  pages  and  ad- 
justment of  margins,  but  the 
relative  position  of  the  pages 
to  their  mates  and  to  one  an- 

other  must  be  the  same  as  in 

the  ordinary  method  of  impo- 

L,,,,,,;,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,      ,,,,,;;,,;:;,,,;;,n,|;,,J    sition.     This  sheet  has  to  be 

Illllil      iillllll!    folded  for  its  first  fold  the 

10  Eight  pages  in  one    broad  way  of  the  print ;  on  its 

form,  oblong  way.        second,  the  narrow  way. 


1  _ 


-  e 

-  8 


11 


9  - 

7  — 


9  - 

7  - 


Eight  pages  in  the 
usual  way. 


Duplicates  in  the  same  form          349 

Eight     pages     imposed 

from   the    centre    differ 

from  eight  pages  in  the 

usual  way  only  in   the 

transposition  of  the  two 

halves  of  the  form.   The 

pages  in  each  quarter  are 

precisely  the  same. 
In  Scheme  12  the  right 

and  left  halves  of  Scheme 

11  are  transposed.  When 

Scheme  12  has  been  se- 
lected, the  white  margin 

of  paper  on  the  outside  of 

pages  8  and  7  must  be, 

for  each  side,  one  half  (no 

more,  no  less)  of  the  blank 

between  pages  1  and  2. 

"  Two  on"  (Scheme  13)  is  a  phrase  often  used  to 

describe  the  filling  of  a  form  with  two  (and  some- 
times more)  duplicates  of 
the  same  type  or  plates. 
It  is  frequently  practised 
to  utilize  a  large  machine, 
to  lessen  the  number  of 
impressions  and  to  save 
needless  expense.  The 
first  and  last  four  pages 


_  2 


i  _ 


-  G 

—  8 


12   Eight  pages  imposed 
from  the  centre. 


z  - 

-  e 

t  - 

-  1 

1  _ 

,—, 

L,- 

-2 

13    Eight  pages  in  two  sec- 
of but  4  pages  only, 


tions 

often  known  as 


two  on. 


of  a  book  can  be  so  im- 
posed with  advantage. 


350 


Three  octavos  in  one  section 


-        ~IZ    \     ZZ~       —    8 


i  _ 


—  24 


23  — 


—  2 


Outset  of  section. 


8  -         —  LI 
5  —         —20 


81- 
19  — 


—  L 

—  6 


The  triple  scheme  14  ex- 
emplifies three  half-sheets 
of  octavo,  but  they  are 
imposed  in  three  forms, 
to  be  inset  so  as  to  make 
24  pages  to  one  section. 
Note  (1)  that  the  sum 
total  of  every  pair  of 
mated  pages  is  always 
25 ;  (2)  that  the  twelve 
pages  which  constitute 
the  first  half  of  the  sec- 
tion are  at  the  ends  of 
each  sheet  and  the  other 
half  in  the  centre;  (3) 
that  the  last  pages  of 
the  outset  occupy  rela- 
tively the  same  position 
as  pages  5,  6,  7,  8  in  the 
ordinary  octavo ;  (4)  that 
the  first  four  pages  of 
the  first  inset  occupy  the 
position  of  the  first  pages 
in  the  ordinary  octavo. 
When  this  order  is  well 
understood,  imposing  of 
inset  sections  in  many 

forms  may  be  done  with- 
14   Eight-page  forms  in  three        .   . ,         .  ,      „       , . 

chases,  to  be  inset  to  make  Out  the  aid  °f  a  Diagram 
one  section  of  24  pages.        previously  prepared. 


First  inset. 


7,1  —       —  81 


9  — 


—  16 


tl  —       —  IT 
15  —       — 10 


Second  inset. 


Sixteen  and  thirty-two  pages          351 

Eight  pages  may  also  be  imposed  the  long  way  of 
the  page  after  Scheme  15,  which  is  sometimes  used 


IBB.  Jill!  I  IlIIIllL  Jill! 

15    Eight  pages,  2  wide,  4  high. 

to  utilize  offcuts  of  paper.  This  scheme,  although 
not  often  used,  may  be  needed  for  offcuts  and  long 
pages  on  a  sheet  of  odd  shape. 

1  _          _8         5-         —  4        •        3  —         —  6         7-         -2 


16    Eight  pages  for  an  offcut  of  paper. 

This  is  another  scheme  for  eight  pages,  which  also 
shows  the  unalterable  position  of  mated  pages. 


SIXTEEN    AND    THIRTY-TWO    PAGES 


8~         —  6         Z\—        —  Q  9  —        —  IT         01—        —  L 

1  _       _  16         13—       —  4  3—       — 14         15—        -2 


Outer  form.  Inner  form. 

17    Sixteen  pages  in  two  chases  for  one  section. 


352     Advantages  of  sheetwise  presswork 

In  Scheme  17  the  outer  and  inner  forms  are  laid 
down  side  by  side ;  but  if  the  pages  of  the  inner 
form  were  placed  at  the  top  of  the  outer  form 
(page  2  in  the  upper  left-hand  corner),  and  all  were 
in  one  chase,  the  arrangement  would  be  that  of  the 
usual  form  of  sixteens.  (See  Scheme  19.) 

The  outer  and  inner  forms  of  the  same  sheet 
should  have  the  pages  laid  down  in  the  two  chases 
at  the  same  time  and  in  consecutive  order.  Be- 
ginning with  page  1  of  the  outer  form,  pages  2  and 
3  should  next  be  put  in  the  inner  form.  Pages  4 
and  5  will  next  be  put  in  the  outer  form,  to  be 
followed  by  pages  6  and  7  in  the  inner  form.  This 
successive  alternation  of  two  consecutive  pages  in 
each  chase  will  be  continued  until  the  last  page  is 
mated  with  the  first  page  of  the  outer  form. 

One  of  the  difficulties  of  sheetwise  imposition  is 
that  of  making  register  when  there  is  a  shrinkage 
of  furniture  in  either  form.  Another  is  its  greater 
liability  to  unevenness  of  color  or  of  impression 
when  the  two  forms  are  done  on  different  presses 
and  by  different  pressmen.  But  it  has  to  be  used  on 
rotary  and  perfecting  presses  that  have  been  con- 
structed to  deliver  the  sheet  perfect  on  both  sides 
at  one  operation.  It  is  also  used  with  advantage 
for  very  large  pages,  and  for  illustrated  work  in 
which  the  ink  on  the  cuts  printed  on  one  side  of 
the  paper  should  be  entirely  dry  before  the  second 
side  goes  to  press.  When  an  unusually  large  num- 
ber of  pages  has  to  be  put  on  a  sheet  (as  in  three 


Sixteen  pages  ~by  two  methods         353 


sixteens  to  a  48mo  in 
two  chases)  the  sheetwise 
method  is  of  service,  but, 
as  a  rule,  the  form  that 
can  be  printed  perfect  on 
itself  as  a  half-sheet  is 
printed  with  more  ease 
than  if  the  pages  were 
imposed  in  two  forms. 

Sixteen  pages  are  also 
imposed  from  the  cen- 
tre. When  the  sheet  has 
been  perfected  and  cut  in 


z  —      — 


—        —  8 


7  _      _io      ii- 


-  6 


51—         -  Q 
13—         -4 


19    Sixteen  pages  as 

usually  laid. 
23 


51- 
13  — 


-  6 
—  16 


ti- 
ll— 


z  — 


—  SI 
-10 


18     Sixteen  pages,  imposed 
from  centre. 

two,  page  1  will  be  the 
outQr  page  of  the  section, 
but  the  pages  from  2  to  8 
will  be  closed  by  bolts  at 
head  and  side.  Imposing 
from  the  centre  reverses 
the  position  of  the  bolts. 
Another  method  of  im- 
posing the  16mo  from  the 
centre  can  be  followed  by 
transposing  in  a  body  the 
pages  entire  on  each  side 
of  the  short  cross-bar. 


354  Sixteen  pages  with' an  inset 


z  - 

3  — 


i  — 


-  L 
—  6 


8  - 
5  - 


-  G 

-  8 


9  - 

7  - 


~  I 
—  4 


-  8 

-  2 


For  a  very  long  edition 
the  section  of  8  pages 
is  often  duplicated  by 
electrotyping,  so  that  the 
duplicates  can  be  printed 
together  on  a  large  press. 
In  this  scheme  the  paper 
can  be  turned  on  the  long 
cross  or  short  cross.  The 
sheet  when  perfected  will 
make  32  pages,  or  four 
duplicates,  8  pages  each. 


20    Sixteen  pages,  as  two 
sections  of  8  pages. 

In  the  usual  way  of  im- 
posing sixteens  the  long 
bolts  or  closed  leaves  are 
those  that  come  between 
pages  9  and  16.  It  should 
be  also  noted  that  in  the 
two  schemes  18  and  19 
the  mated  pages  of  each 
quarter  are  alike  j  their 
position  together  upon 
the  sheet  is  different,  but 
their  relative  position  to 
each  other  is  not  changed. 


z  — 

3  - 


—  si 


9  — 

7  


-IT 
-10 


1   — 


—  SI 

-16 


8  - 
5  - 


-  6 
-12 


21     Sixteen   pages   in   two 
portions  of  8  pages  for  inset. 


01 


Sixteen  pages  for  two  sections         355 

When  the  paper  for  a  16-page  section  is  too  thick 

to  be  folded,  but  not  too  thick  to  be  sewed  as  a 

single  section,  it  is  cus-     „,,,,,„,,,,,,    ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 

tomary  to  impose  the  full 

sheet  of  16  pages  in  two/   i 

parts.    Each  part  can  be     £""-      - "i"i 

separately    folded,    and     ~         viT      7  _ 

one  part  can  be  inset  in 
the  other.  This  prevents 
the  buckling  of  the  paper 
between  pages  8  and  9, 
and  it  saves  the  cost  of 
extra  sewing  for  another 
section. 

This  is  another  scheme        IA         ^     |   8  - 
(22)  to  save  'extra  press-     ±'"~     '"_ 
work  and  to  utilize  large 
presses.     It  may  happen 
that  a  book  of  16 -page 
sections  closes  with  12      ^  Sixteen  pages  in  two 

pages  only  for  the  last  portions,  one  of  12  and 
sheet.  To  print  a  special  one  of  4  PaSes- 
form  of  12  pages  is  both  inconvenient  and  waste- 
ful. It  is  customary  to  impose  the  12  pages  for  a 
form  of  16,  and  to  treat  the  excess  of  4  pages  as  a 
part  of  the  end  papers  in  the  book.  Or  these  4  pages 
can  be  utilized  to  be  added  to  the  preface  matter, 
if  a  similar  irregularity  is  there  presented.  Scheme 
22  shows  an  imposition  for  one  section  of  12  pages 
and  one  of  4  pages.  The  sheet  of  16  pages  can  be 


9  — 


_  4 


—  L 


3  —          — 


33  —        —  36 


356       Sixteen  oblong  pages,  music  way 

folded  at  the  same  time, 
and  the  binder  can  then 
cut  out  the  four  pages 
v-viii  with  the  folder,  and 
afterward  put  them  in 
their  proper  places  in  the 
front  part  of  the  book. 

Scheme  23  when  print- 
ed on  both  sides  will  be 
cut  in  six  pieces,  to  make 
three  sets  of  duplicates. 
For  a  form  of  16  pages 
in  four  sections  of  4  pages 
each,  repeat  on  the  left 
side  of  the  long  cross  the 
arrangement  of  4  pages 

A "          "   i  B"  for  the  two  sections  here 

23     Sixteen  pages  in  three        ghown  on  the  right 
sections :  one  8,  two  4. 


—          —   g 


?e—     —  ss 


1  — 


—  8 


:,;i 

:ii:;::iii:i::::i:i;;ii!::!::i 

iiiiiiiii 

r*  -r                               ""    IM 

lllllll.llllilllll    IMMIllII 

1° 

]^ 

I!!!!     !»!  <  

;»::!!»»:;!!»»!!»!  

IMIIIHIIIMIIIMIIIIMII-III 

1  fi 

01 

1  ** 

L 

0 

Ij    Ml               Mlt'llli  1 

UIIUIIM. 

;;  iii    ":;:;;;:;;;; 

EEiiii  /  '  |] 

24    Sixteen  oblong  pages,  music  way,  one  section. 


Thirty-two  pages  in  one  section       357 

Scheme  24  provides  for  duplicates  of  16  pages 
each.  The  first  and  second  folds  of  the  section  are 
the  narrow  way  of  the  cut  sheet ;  the  last  fold  is  at 
a  right  angle.  Buckling  of  paper  may  be  lessened 
by  ripping  the  sheet  half-way  on  the  second  fold 
with  the  bone  folder  between  pages  12  and  13. 


f  -         —  63 
13  —        —  20 


83- 
21- 


-  e 

—  12 


LZ 

22 


os  — 

19 


91—       —LI 
1  -         —32 


oi  — 

7  - 


—  S3 

—  26 


81  — 
31- 


—  SI 

-  2 


25 


Outer  form.  Inner  form. 

Thirty-two  pages  in  two  chases,  to  fold  as  one  section. 


Scheme  25  is  entirely  impracticable  for  a  library 
book,  and  is  of  doubtful  value  for  a  cheap  pamphlet 
on  very  thin  paper.  With  paper  of  ordinary  thick- 
ness it  will  cause  wrinkling,  and  margins  will  be 
askew.  This  arrangement  of  pages  when  put  in  one 
chase  is  usually  described  as  a  half -sheet  of  32  pages. 


358 


Thirty-two  pages  with  inset 


oi  — 

15  — 


—  18 


zz  — 

19  — 


13  —       —  20 


—       —16 


29—        — 


9  - 
3  - 


—  30 


Outer  form.  Inner  form. 

26  Thirty-two  pages  in  two  forms:  two  signatures  of  16 
pages,  to  be  separately  folded  and  inset  to  make  one  section. 

The  sheet  printed  by  Scheme  26  is  cut  in  two 
pieces,  making  two  distinct  portions  of  16  pages. 
The  section  containing  pages  1-8  and  25-32  is  folded 
as  the  outset;  the  section  containing  pages  9-24 
constitutes  the  inset.  This  arrangement  should 
not  be  selected  for  a  library  book,  for  the  section 
so  treated  will  be  too  thick.  The  imposition  of 
the  pages  in  one  chase  for  paper  of  double  size  is 
usually  known  as  a  half-sheet  of  32  pages,  imposed 
for  two  separate  foldings  and  one  section. 

For  32  pages  in  one  form  as  two  sections  of  16 
pages,  rearrange  the  lay  of  pages  so  that  the  sheet 


Thirty-two  pages  of  four  sections      359 

can  be  turned  on  the  short  cross  in  backing  up,  keep- 
ing each  section  distinct  on  its  side  of  the  long  cross.1 
Sixty-four  pages  in  four  sections  of  16  pages 
each  are  shown  in  Scheme  5,  on  page  341.  Sixty- 
four  pages  in  one  section  is  another  impracticable 
imposition,2  even  if  made  with  two  or  four  insets. 


05—       —  IZ    !     8Z  —       —63     :    08 
17—       —  24    !     25  —       —32    I     31 


—  LZ    \    ZZ—       —61 

—  26    !    23—       —18 


?  -        -  s 

1  -  -8 


"4" 

mi'!!!!!!!!! 

ill  1 

iiiil  iii 

_m       |       . 

nm.mn 

—it 

t 

>"—  '  —  "": 

-         -16 

L5  — 

-10 

"t 

'  —           —  5 

1  2 

27    Thirty-two  pages,  as  four  sections  of  8  pages  each. 


1  Imposing  the  pages  for  each 
section  on  distinct  sides  of  the 
long  cross  keeps  the  same  feed- 
edge  of  paper  in  printing  the 
second  side.  Each  section  of  16 
will  be  on  half  of  the  sheet  cut 
the  long  way.  See  Scheme  39. 


2  An  approach  to  this  problem 
is  made  by  one  style  of  machine 
folder  which,  by  outward  and 
inward  folding,  connects  in  one 
long  strip  four  sections  of  16 
pages,  conjoined  but  prepared 
for  connective  sewing. 


360         Ninety-six  pages  in  one  chase 


=  to    «  = 

IT  71 


|||  =  ||||||i  o      ^1  =  1"  =  ==  =  =  = 

_ 

n 


i 


if  fi 
ii  i 


HIM!  01      Cq 

iiiiiir 

IIHII  i    i 


fl 


£i 

iiiiifiiliito    01 

•!i  A! 


liif  ?: .  :  r  r:;:: 

iw  iiiii- 1  ini  aiir  I  iHiii  air 

28     Ninety-six  pages  in  one  chase :  six  sections  of  16s. 

This  form  is  more  practicable  with  plates  than  with 
type.  Exact  register  will  be  facilitated  if  the  four 
mated  pages  are  cast  together  on  one  plate. 


One  hundred  and  twenty -eight  pages    361 


»OI   90t    801   TOl  |  OSI   ISl    »Sl   All 
97   113   109   100    113   128   138   116 


Si    8L     9A    69 
6S   80    77   68 


811   SSI 
116   128 


SSI   611 
127  114 


88    68     86    88     98    16     06   18 


==  = 


64     61    62 


61    62     63 


»6    SC     85    15 
17    32     29    20 


501   AOl    901   €01 
99   110    111   98 


€t     5*    66 
46     47   34 


II     01 
14     15 


29     One  hundred  and  twenty-eight  pages  in  one  chase  : 
eight  sections  of  16  pages  each. 

The  scheme  of  128  pages  in  one  chase  is  possible 
for  very  small  pages  and  thin  sections  only.  In 
two  forms,  outer  and  inner,  of  64  pages  each,  the 
128-page  scheme  is  more  manageable,  and  especially 
so  when  the  outer  form  contains  the  illustrations 
and  the  inner  form  has  plain  type  only.  When 
there  are  illustrations  that  may  require  special 
treatment  in  making  ready,  the  smaller  form  of  64 


362  Advantages  of  thin  sections 

pages  in  sections  of  16  pages  only,  as  shown  in 
Scheme  5,  will  be  more  useful  for  small  editions. 
Separate  sections  of  16  pages,  when  paper  is  of 
ordinary  thickness,  are  preferred  by  all  printers  and 
binders.  The  schemes  of  this  book  could  be  in- 
creased by  presenting  others  for  sections  of  24  or 
32  pages,  but  they  would  prove  of  no  service  for  a 
neat  book.  The  methods  occasionally  adopted  by 
the  publisher  of  cheap  advertising  pamphlets,  who 
tries  to  reduce  the  cost  of  manufacture  by  printing 
too  many  pages  in  one  form  on  a  large  sheet,  and 
by  folding  the  sheet  so  printed  in  sections  of  32 
or  more  pages,  cannot  be  safely  imitated  in  strict 
book-work.  Forms  of  many  pages  are  not  eco- 
nomical for  small  editions.  Even  when  the  pages 
in  a  form  are  not  too  numerous,  the  unskilled  com- 
positor is  specially  warned  against  making  too  thick 
sections  with  intent  to  reduce  the  cost  of  folding 
and  sewing.  Thick  sections  will  not  save  time  or  ex- 
pense. What  may  seem  to  be  saved  in  one  direction 
will  be  more  than  lost  in  another,  and  the  book  of 
thick  sections  will  be  condemned  as  unworkmanlike 
and  may  be  entirely  unacceptable.  The  smaller  the 
leaf  the  more  the  need  of  thinner  sections. 

For  the  large  sheets  printed  on  rotary  or  flat-bed 
perfecting  presses,  that  will  be  folded  by  the  newer 
styles  of  folding-machines,  these  schemes  will  not 
serve,  for  machines  differ  from  one  another  in  plan 
and  construction.  Pages  must  be  imposed  by  the 
schemes  of  the  manufacturer  of  the  machine. 


Twelve  pages  in  one  chase 


363 


TWELVE    PAGES    AND    THEIR    DUPLICATES 


5  — 


—  8 


—         —  6 


MIMMII 


t  —         —  6    i    01  — 

+ 

i  —      — 12  i  ii  — 


Scheme   30  is  an  8vo 
with  an  added  4-page 
inset,  within  which  oc- 
tavo part  this  inset  can 
be  folded  by  the  same 
mm,,,,,,,     operation,  or  can  be  cut 
jiiii  D  off  for  a  separate  fold- 
ing and  subsequent  in- 
-  8     sertion.     The  sheet  is 
_  2     made   perfect    on   the 
second  side  by  turning 
it  on  the  long  cross-bar 
""""J1"  of  the  chase.1 

30     Twelve    pages   in   one  Pages   5,  8,  7,  6    are 

chase.  Turns  on  long  cross.  of  ten  called  the  off  cut, 
because  in  old  methods  of  imposition  they  were  cut 
off  and  separately  folded  to  be  inserted  as  an  inset 
between  pages  4  and  9.  By  this  old  method  the 
running  title  and  its  folio  figure  were  always  placed 
at  the  tail  of  pages  4,  9,  10,  3.  This  treatment, 
unavoidable  on  rough  paper,  often  produced  uneven 
head  margins  and  a  crooked  inset.  This  fault  can 


1  In  presswork  the  first  side  of 
the  sheet  is  laid  up  to  guides 
against  edges  AB ;  the  second 
side,  against  edges  BD.  To  get 
correct  register  by  feeding,  the 
sheet  should  be  trimmed  accu- 
rately square  on  all  sides.  If  the 
paper  is  crooked  or  if  it  is  hand- 


made with  rough  edges,  points 
should  be  inserted  on  the  first 
side,  as  marked  in  scheme,  for 
its  repointing  on  second  side. 
The  black  dots  in  Scheme  30 
mark  the  usual  place  of  points 
for  hand-press ;  the  +,  the  place 
of  points  for  cylinder. 


364        Insets  and  signatures  of  12mo 

be  prevented  by  the  use  of  truly  squared  paper, 
by  putting  the  heads  of  the  so-called  offcut  pages 
against  the  edge  of  the  sheet,  and  by  giving  an 
increased  amount  of  blank  where  the  tail  of  the 
offcut  part  meets  the  tail  of  the  octavo  part  of  the 
sheet.  The  pressman  should  feed  paper  to  the  off- 
cut  edge  and  give  to  its  head  margin  one  half  of 
the  blank  provided  in  the  head-bolts  of  the  octavo 
part  of  the  sheet.  When  these  precautions  have 
been  taken,  the  head  margins  of  an  inset  offcut 
can  be  made  as  true  as  those  of  a  folded  16mo. 

Pressmen  dislike  the  12mo  because  its  turn  on 
the  long  cross  causes  delay  and  trouble  ;  publishers 
dislike  it  because  it  is  expensive  in  folding  and 
has  greater  liability  to  untidiness  j  yet  it  is  a  form 
that  must  be  used  often.  On  hand-made  papers 
with  rough  edges,  the  heads  of  the  offcut  must  be 
placed  after  the  old  method  at  the  tail  of  other 
pages,  but  points  must  be  used.  On  smooth-edged 
paper  the  turning  out  of  the  heads  for  the  offcut 
is  a  better  practice,  and  the  points  may  be  omitted. 

Twelve  pages  can  be  imposed  from  the  centre 
by  transposing  in  a  body  pages  4,  9,  1,  12  with 
pages  10,  3,  11,  2.  Offcut  pages  need  no  change. 

At  the  tail  of  page  5  in  Scheme  30  appears  1*. 
The  star  indicates  an  inset :  1*  for  the  first  and 
1**  for  the  second  inset  of  the  complete  section. 
The  purpose  of  the  repeated  signature  figure  with 
star  attached  is  to  identify  the  offcut  and  to  show 
its  connection  to  the  outset.  In  a  bindery  where 


Twenty-four  pages  in  two  chases       365 

this  inset  will  be  cut  off  and  may  be  misplaced, 
this  mark  of  identification  is  of  service. 

9—        —16        13—      —12        11—      —14        15—      —10 


8~        —  LI        OZ—        —  £       9—        —61        81—        —  L 

1—        —  24       21—        —4       3—        —22        23—        —2 


Outer  form.  Inner  form. 

31     Twenty-four  pages  in  two  chases,  as  one  section. 

In  Scheme  31  the  16-page  portion  of  the  form  is 
imposed  8  pages  wide  and  2  pages  high,  contrary 
to  the  order  of  Scheme  19  (4  pages  high,  4  pages 
wide),  but  this  part  of  the  sheet  can  be  folded  in 
the  same  way  at  successive  right  angles.  The  off- 
cut,  which  should  be  folded  separately,  must  have 
two  successive  folds  on  same  parallel. 

The  arrangement  of  the  pages  in  Scheme  31 
will  serve  quite  as  well  for  the  imposition  of  24 
pages  in  one  chase,  but  this  is  not  recommended. 
Thick  sections  produce  outer  margins  of  unequal 
width  when  the  book  has  been  trimmed.  Every 


366          Narrowing  of  back  margins 

double  leaf  following  the  outer  one  is  pushed  out- 
ward a  little  more  than  the  thickness  of  its  paper. 
This  outpush  varies ;  it  is  about  a  lead  more  on  the 
second  leaf,  and  it  increases  uniformly  with  every 
added  leaf  in  the  section.  In  the  book  planned  for 
wide  front  margin,  a  difference  in  width  of  two  or 
three  leads  is  unnoticeable  and  may  be  disregarded ; 
in  the  rule-bordered  32mo  of  small  size,  planned 
for  margins  of  one-third  or  one-quarter  inch,  vari- 
ation becomes  a  serious  fault  which  will  require 
much  care  for  its  prevention. 

To  prevent  this  fault,  the  back  margins  of  inner 
leaves  must  be  narrowed  with  system.  The  back 
margin  of  the  outer  double  leaf  needs  no  alteration, 
but  that  of  the  second  double  leaf  should  have 
about  one  lead  less.  The  third  double  leaf,  and 
every  added  one,  should  have  a  narrowing  in  the 
same  proportion,  in  all  cases  depending  on  the 
thickness  of  the  paper.  The  blank  taken  out  of 
back  margins  must  be  restored  in  two  equal  parts 
to  the  front  margins  of  the  leaves  from  which  the 
blank  has  been  abstracted.  This  readjustment  is 
exceedingly  troublesome. 

It  is  better  practice  to  have  this  readjustment 
done  on  the  stone  in  forms  that  are  being  prepared 
for  electrotyping,  the  stoneman  being  notified  of 
the  paper  that  will  be  used  and  of  the  scheme  of 
imposition.  In  the  ordinary  scheme  of  16  pages  in 
one  section,  the  two  pages  1-16  should  be  prepared 
for  electrotyping  upon  one  plate  with  the  regular 


Adjusted  margins  for  plates          367 

back  margin.  Pages  2-15,  that  back  1-16,  also  in 
one  plate,  should  have  the  same  back  margin. 
Pages  3-14  and  4-13  of  the  second  leaf  should 
have  one  lead  less  in  the  back  margin  j  pages 
5-12  and  6-11  of  the  third  leaf,  two  leads  less; 
and  7-10  and  8-9  of  the  fourth  leaf,  three  leads 
less.  The  electrotyper  may  need  the  caution  to 
bevel  all  these  double-paged  plates  to  uniform  size, 
not  bevelling  an  outer  margin  too  close  to  type- 
work  because  the  margins  have  been  made  inten- 
tionally unequal.  Plates  so  made  will  seem  out  of 
line  when  adjusted  upon  blocks,  but  the  pages  will 
be  in  line  when  the  book  has  been  properly  printed, 
folded,  and  trimmed.  All  the  outer  margins  will 
be  of  uniform  width ;  the  abstracted  blank  in  the 
back  margin  will  not  be  noticed.  This  method  of 
electrotyping  two  and  sometimes  four  pages  upon 
one  plate  has  this  additional  advantage :  it  saves 
the  time  of  the  pressman  and  improves  the  register. 

The  appearance  of  the  ordinary  24mo  of  one 
section  can  be  made  more  sightly  by  reducing  the 
width  of  back  margins  of  the  offcut  by  this  sys- 
tem, even  when  the  margins  of  the  8vo  part  of 
the  sheet  remain  undisturbed.  This  change  can  be 
made  in  the  offcut  with  little  trouble. 

Twenty-four  pages  can  be  imposed  to  produce 
two  sections,  one  of  16  and  one  of  8  pages,  by 
putting  pages  1-16  on  the  two-third  part  of  the 
sheet  (making  it  an  independent  section),  and  by 
putting  pages  17-24  for  the  other  section  in  the 


368 


Sections  should  be  uniform 


—  _4    i    3— 


i_ 


—  4 


3—  —  2 


one-third  or  offcut  part  of  the  sheet.     This  also 
must  be  folded  the  long  way. 

Twenty-four  pages  can  also  be  imposed  for  three 
sections  of  8  pages  by  treating  each  row  of  pages  as 
an  8vo  to  be  folded  the  long  way.  See  Scheme  16. 

Twelve  pages,  in  a  form 
of  similar  triplicates  of  4 
pages  each,  are  often  used 
for  the  printing  of  pam- 
phlet covers.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  have  truly  squared 
paper  and  exact  cutting 
and  folding,  for  the  paper 
must  be  turned  on  the  long 
cross,  and  the  sheet  must 
present  different  edges  to 
the  feed-guides.  The  heads 
of  all  sections  can  be  laid 
one  way,  as  here  shown. 

Sections  of  the  same 
thickness  favor  neat  bind- 
ing. When  a  section  of  16  pages  is  followed  by 
another  of  8  or  of  4  pages,  the  gatherer  may  over- 
look the  thin  section.  A  book  that  has  uneven  sec- 
tions is  rarely  ever  neatly  sewed ;  its  leaves  open 
stiffly  and  show  unsightly  gaps  at  its  joints.  Thin 
sections  are  sometimes  unavoidable,  but  they  should 
be  prevented  when  prevention  is  possible.  Schemes 
for  sections  of  unequal  thickness  in  forms  of  many 
pages  are  most  useful  when  the  additional  small 


i  — 


—  4 


—  —  2 


32  Twelve  pages  in  one 
chase,  similar  triplicates 
of  4  pages  each. 


Twelvemo  of  oblong  leaves  369 

sections  save  presswork  or  waste  of  paper.  They 
could  be  largely  increased  in  this  book,  but  to  no 
advantage.  They  are  not  helpful  but  confusing 
to  the  young  compositor,  for  they  lead  him  to  use 
schemes  that  call  for  complicated  folding. 
.a,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,;,,,,,,  i","1::!!;!"!;'"!;!::;:1,!!  The  six  outer  pages  that 
Siiiiji  come  first  and  appear  on  the 
9  —  ~  ^  left  side  of  Scheme  33  are  on 

3—  -10    one  side  of  the  long  cross; 

the  six  pages  that  come  last 
are  on  the  other  side ;  but  the 
sheet  is  perfected  by  turning 
it  over  the  short  cross  in  the 
usual  way.     The  sheet  is  cut 
in  halves :  see  rule  between 
pages  1-2  and  11-12,  which 
makes   duplicates  of   them. 
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,„,        !:!!:!»»!:!',!!!»:!!»!!»!!    Pages  5,  6,  7,  8  turn  in  on 
|    the  first  fold.     The  second 
*~~  ~G    fold  is  made  on  the  same 

£„—  ,,,,,«~,®    parallel  between  pages  3-2 

i    and  10-11.     Last  fold  is  on 

33 Twelve  pages  of"  ob-    the  narrow  way  of  the  paper. 

long  shape,  no  inset,        In  Scheme  34  that  follows 
central  imposition.  fae  sheet  turns  on  the  long 

cross,  and  two  parallel  folds  have  to  be  made.  It 
is  intended  to  have  the  offcut  (pages  9-16)  sepa- 
rately folded  and  inset.  The  folding  in  of  the  inset, 
unavoidable  in  cheap  and  hurried  binding,  is  too 
often  inaccurate  as  to  margins. 

24 


IT 


12 


370      Names  and  proportions  of  leaves 


01 

11 


91 
13 


1C 
20 


or, 

19 


LI 
24 


34     Twenty-four  pages,  oblong  shape,1  inset  of  8  pages. 

The  pages  could  be  laid  for  a  folding  in  of  the  inset, 
but  its  separate  folding  will  make  a  neater  section. 

1  In  advertised  descriptions  of 
books,  some  publishers  specify 
the  paper -trade  name  of  the 
paper  used  before  they  add  the 
name  of  the  shape  or  the  fold  of 
the  leaf,  but  this  practice  is  not 
general.  Sizes  of  paper  differ 
and  the  names  of  leaf -shapes 
differ  in  different  countries.  It 
follows  that  the  descriptive 
names  of  sizes  and  shapes  are 
often  confusing  and  may  be 
misleading.  The  table  annexed 
gives  names  that  are  in  frequent 


use,  but  they  are  not  so  called 
everywhere.  The  figures  give 
relative  proportions  in  inches. 

Name  of  leaf.         Height.  Width. 
Regular  or  standard  .  9          6 
Broad  or  wide  ...  9          6*& 
Quarto  shape     ...  9          7 
Long  or  deep    ...  9          5 
Extra  long  or  narrow  9 
Oblong  or  music  way  9 
Variations  of  a  half  -inch  in  the 
height  are  seldom  explained  by 
any  change  in  name. 


13 


Twenty-four  pages  by  two  impositions    371 

9  —        —16         13—       — 12    :     11  —       —14         15—       —10 


OS 
21 


9  ~ 
3  — 


—  61 

—  22 


81—         -    L 
23-        —  2 


35    Twenty-four  pages  in  one  chase,  with  offcut  of  8  pages 
to  be  inset  and  make  one  section. 


5  —    _  8  ;  17  —   —  20  i  19  —   — 18  I  7  —    — 


—  12 


91  —   —\Z 
13  —   —  24 


ZZ 
23 


—  si 

—  14 


01 

11 


-  8 

-  2 


36     Twenty-four  pages  in  one  chase,  for  two  sections  of 
12  pages  each,  offcuts  to  be  separately  folded  and  inset. 


372         Twenty -four  pages,  16mo  fold 


z  -      —  85 

7  —        —  18 


zz  — 

19  — 


-  8     j    01—       —  fil 

_  6    !     11—       —14 


os  — 

21  — 


—  £ 
_  4 


SI  —        —  81 
9  —         —16 


1  1* 

37    Twenty-four  pages  on  the  square  sheet,  with  offcut 
of  8  pages,  to  be  inset  to  make  one  section. 


For  the  24mo  in  one  chase,  two  shapes  of  paper 
are  made :  the  square  shape,  .for  which  the  pages 
must  be  imposed  4  pages  high  and  6  pages  wide  ; 
the  long  shape,  3  pages  high  and  8  pages  wide. 
For  the  ordinary  12mo  leaf,  5£  x  7|  inches,  the 
square  paper  is  30§  x  30  J  inches,  an  awkward  shape. 
The  long  paper,  23  X  41  inches,  is  handier,  and  is 
usually  preferred.  For  long  editions  the  32-page 
form  on  paper  30  x  40  or  31  x  41  inches  is  selected. 
Sixteen-page  impositions,  for  cross  folds  and 
without  insets,  are  best  fitted  for  hand  folding. 


Twenty -four  pages  on  square  sheet     373 


_,,            M—       |       mmm 

mn.m,        ^       imnuum 

—  "es 

3  —        —  10    j     19- 

-18     |     15—  | 

—  22 

t""—  —  ""e      os"- 

4 

s  „„   I 

unmn,        j        mmnnnn 

mmmm 

1  _        _12    |     5^- 

-8     I     13  — 

—  24 

1  II*  12 

38     Twenty-four  pages  on  the  square  shape 
of  sheet,  for  two  sections  of  12  pages. 

This  sheet  turns  on  the  short  cross.  When  per- 
fected it  is  first  cut  in  three  long  strips.  The  outer 
strips  (signatures  1  and  2)  are  folded  separately  as 
8vos.  The  inner  strip,  that  bears  the  signatures  1* 
and  2*,  is  cut  in  four  pieces,  making  duplicates  of 
each  signature,  which  are  separately  folded  and 
inset  in  their  proper  order.  The  outer  strips  are 
each  subdivided  in  two  equal  parts  for  the  insertion 
of  the  insets.  Scheme  38  makes  troublesome  fold- 
ing. It  should  not  be  selected  when  paper  of  proper 
size  can  be  had  that  will  permit  the  use  of  Scheme 
35,  which  is  more  approved  by  publishers. 


374     Forty-eight  pages  in  three  sections 

For  twenty-four  pages  in  one  chase,  the  long  shape 
of  paper,  usually  23  x  41,  is  to  be  preferred  for 
the  ordinary  duodecimo  of  5£  x  7f  inches. 


oT—     —"it 

33—       —48 

55— 

45  — 

is 

z,e 

36 

88 
35 

—  "et 

—       —46 

mmunmn 

47  — 

"—  "es 

—  34 

t3  — 

17  — 


—  QZ    83 

—  32    29 


20    ;     19— 


—  LZ    93  —   —  S3 

—  30    31  —   —  18 


8  -    -  6    31  ~ 
1  —    —16    13  — 


-IT    OT—    -  L 
—  14    15—    -  2 


39    Forty-eight  pages  in  one  chase,  as  three  distinct  sections 
of  16  pages  each,  for  the  square  shape  of  paper. 


Other  plans  for  forty-eight  pages       375 

Twenty-four  pages  in  three  separate  sections  of 
8  pages  each  can  be  made  by  triplicating  in  one 
chase  Scheme  15  or  16  for  8  pages. 

The  sheet  for  Scheme  39  turns  on  the  long  cross. 
When  perfected  it  is  cut  in  six  pieces,  as  marked, 
and  each  section  is  folded  as  a  regular  16mo.  Its 
turn  on  the  long  cross,  for  printing  on  the  second 
side,  compels  a  new  feed-edge  of  paper  to  be  pre- 
sented to  the  grippers— a  treatment  always  objec- 
tionable to  the  pressman.  To  impose  the  pages  to 
turn  on  the  short  cross  gives  extra  trouble  to  the 
binder,  and  risks  imperfect  workmanship:  the 
upper  and  lower  tiers  of  16  pages  each  must  be 
treated  as  widely  separated  but  regular  sixteens, 
as  in  Scheme  19 ;  the  middle  tier  of  16  must  be 
cut  at  the  head,  to  fold  by  consecutive  parallels. 

For  48  pages  in  two  sections  of  24  pages  each, 
but  in  one  chase,  repeat  on  each  half  of  the  short 
cross  the  imposition  of  Scheme  37,  or  treat  them  as 
the  lower  two  thirds  of  Scheme  44.  It  is  not  an 
imposition  to  be  recommended. 

A  scheme  for  48  pages  in  one  chase,  to  be  folded 
together  in  one  section,  is  quite  impracticable  even 
for  a  common  pamphlet  on  very  thin  paper.  It  is 
never  selected  for  a  library  book,  for  it  cannot  be 
folded  neatly  or  be  trimmed  with  true  margins. 
A  section  of  32  with  inset  of  16  is  clumsy.  It  is 
little  better  to  put  the  pages  in  two  parts  of  24 
pages  each,  one  to  be  inset.  For  all  side-stitched 
pamphlets  prefer  thin  sections.  The  paper  cover 


376        Seventy -two  pages  in  one  chase 

can  be  pasted  on  the  back  of  sections  more  firmly, 
and  it  will  not  sprawl  outward  at  the  fore  edge. 


63—    —68 


0*—    —  Q* 

37 48 


go-    —  ig 
40—    —CO 


T 

17— 


=    B 


67—    —66         66—    —64     ;    43—    -42 


01—    — £J     !     89-    —19 
fll_    _72         71—    —62         59—    —50         47—    —38 


E=   B 


*  —       -6         91—    —15         83—    — C8         *fi-    —IS         S3—    —91         OT-     —  S 
1  —     —12     |     13—    —24    I     25—    —36     I     35—    —26     !     23—    —14         11—      —  2 


40     Seventy-two  pages  in  one  chase :  six  sections  of  12  pages. 

Scheme  40  is  practicable  for  very  small  leaves  only. 
In  adjusting  margins  and  making  register  it  will 
be  more  manageable  if  divided  in  two  chases  as  an 
outer  and  an  inner  form  of  36  pages  each.  It  turns 
on  the  short  cross  and  is  cut  in  twelve  equal  parts, 
making  duplicates  of  each  section.  The  form  could 
be  divided  in  three  sections  of  24  pages,  but  not  to 
advantage  for  a  library  book  of  neat  binding. 


Eighteen  pages  in  one  signature       377 

EIGHTEEN    PAGES    AND    THEIR    DUPLICATES 

The  18mo  in  one  signature  is  an  imposition  to  be 
avoided,  for  it  compels  a  transposition  of  pages  on 
press  when  the  first  side  of  the  paper  has  been 
printed,  and  it  is  troublesome  to  fold.  It  is  occa- 
sionally selected  for  single-sheet  pamphlets,  because 
it  makes  a  shapely  leaf  for  the  common  sizes  of 
paper  19  X  24  and  22  x  28  inches.1 

The  36mo  and  72mo  do  not  require  a  transposi- 
tion of  pages,  but  they  delay  folding,  and  are  se- 
lected by  publishers  only  when  paper  of  suitable 
size  and  quality  cannot  be  had  for  sections  of  16mo. 


5  —      —  12 


17—i—lS         11—        —  6 


1  — 


—  81 

—  16 


15  — 


-  e 

—  2 


41     Eighteen  pages  in  one  chase,  for  one  section.     It 
requires  two  insets,  a  tipped  leaf,  and  transposed  pages. 

1  The  18mo  of  paper  19  x  24  is  papers  are  wider  and  shorter, 

4  x  6Mj  inches,  and  that  of  paper  and  to  many  readers  the  square 

22  x  28  is  4%  x  7Mj  inches.    The  16mo  of  regular  fold  is  a  squatty 

regular  16mo  foldings  of  these  and  objectionable  shape. 


378    Transpositions  needed  for  the  18mo 

In  Scheme  41  the  paper  turns  on  the  short  cross. 
The  two  outer  tiers  of  mated  pages  are  at  the 
ends  of  the  sheet,  where  they  back  one  another 
properly.  So  do  pages  17  and  18  in  the  offcut; 
but  pages  7-10  and  8-9  would  be  wrongly  backed 
by  this  turn  upon  the  short  cross.  When  the  sheet 
has  been  printed  on  the  first  side,  page  7  must  be 
transposed  with  page  9,  and  page  8  with  page  10. 
The  transposition  of  pages  in  the  form  produces 
the  same  result  as  the  turn  on  the  long  cross. 

In  folding,  the  sheet  is  cut  in  three  long  strips, 
as  marked  with  dotted  lines  in  the  scheme.  Pages 
5-12  and  6-11  are  in  an  offcut  that  is  inset  in  the 
larger  folding.  The  centre  tier  is  then  cut  in  three 
equal  parts,  and  pages  7-10  and  8-9  make  another 
inset.  This  leaves  one  third  of  the  centre  strip  with 
pages  17-18.  As  they  have  no  mated  leaf,  it  is 
necessary  to  cut  them  through  the  centre  and  paste 
them  down  on  page  16  at  the  end  of  the  signature. 
It  is  not  an  imposition  to  be  recommended,  for  the 
sheet  has  to  be  cut  in  eight  pieces  and  requires 
special  care  in  folding.1 

i  The  18mo  without  transposi-  leaves  and  the  insecurity  of  an 

tion  is  laid  down  in  some  manu-  unworkmanlike  binding.  It  may 

als :  page  7  lines  with  8  and  page  be  tolerated  in  the  side-stitched 

9  with  10 ;  the  centre  tier  of  pages  pamphlet  of  one  sheet  only,  but 

is  cut  through  the  back  margins,  not  as  a  section  of  a  book  for  the 

making  three  single  leaves  that  library.    Other  schemes  for  the 

must  be  pasted  down  in  the  cen-  18mo  in  one  section  are  equally 

tre  of  the  complete  section.    The  troublesome,  and  they  should  be 

inconvenience  of  transposition  accepted  only  as  a  last  resort 

is  not  so  great  as  that  produced  when  no  other  imposition  can 

by  the  handling  of  three  single  be  used. 


Eighteenmo  folded  as  16mo  379 

In  Scheme  42  the  objectionable  single  leaf  is  cut 
out.  This  permits  a  more  shapely  leaf  than  can  be 
had  from  the  ordinary  fold  of  16mo  on  paper  of 
regulation  size.  The  pages  in  the  middle  tier  must 
be  transposed  for  the  second  side :  pages  7-10  and 
8-9  are  changed  in  the  same  way  as  was  directed 
on  page  378.  The  heads  of  the  pages  in  the  offcut 
are  reversed  so  that  this  part  can  be  turned  in  and 
folded  up  with  the  body  of  the  sheet,  but  the  work 
will  be  neater  if  the  offcut  is  separately  folded. 


5  -      —  12 


11—        —  (5 


t  —        —  81     !     8  -  —  6 

1_          _16    !    7  —        — 10    i     15—         —  2 


42    Eighteenmo  fold  of  16  pages  only, 
one  leaf  cancelled. 

Scheme  43  is  practically  three  series  of  12  pages 
imposed  together  to  produce  small  sections  of  a 
convenient  thickness.  The  offcut  will  be  most 
satisfactorily  treated  if  it  is  separately  folded. 


380        Thirty-six  pages  in  two  chases 

5  —         —  8         17  —       —20        29—       —32 


-6         91—       —  IS 
12    I    13—       —24 


85- 
25 


88 

3(3 


»      1 


Outer  form. 


IT     j    tl  —       —  83     I    93—       —  S8 
10    !     15-       —  22     j     27—       —34 


9-          -A    I     81—       —  61     j     08—       —18 
Inner  form. 

43     Thirty-six  pages  in  two  chases :  three 
sections  of  12  pages  each. 


Seventy -two  pages  in  three  sections     381 


99— 
49— 


— S9        89—    — Sfl 
-72       69-    —52 


09—    — 1»    1    S9— 
57—    —64        63—    —58 


SS— 
25— 


-It        tt—    — 6Z 


45—    —28    j    33—    —40 


88-   -as 


^    ,,_,       ,—, 


51 L70       71 50 


os—   —  st     zi —  —is 

27—    —46       47—    —26 


::;::;;    :=:=::: 
8—      —LI        Co—     —  2        SI—    —81        tl—    —IT 


1—     —24        21—      —4        9—      —16        15—    —10 


9—     —61       81—     —  L 
3_     _22        23—      —2 


44     Seventy-two  pages  in  one  chase :  three  sections  of  24 
pages.    Each  section  will  be  a  16-page  with  8-page  inset. 

Thirty-six  pages  in  two  forms  can  be  arranged  to 
fold  up  as  one  section,— an  outset  of  24  pages  and 
an  inset  of  12  pages,— but  it  is  a  scheme  not  to  be 
recommended :  its  folding  will  be  unusually  trou- 
blesome, even  if  the  12-page  inset  has  been  sepa- 
rately folded.  It  is  here  mentioned  because  it  is 
sometimes  selected  for  a  cheap  pamphlet,  but  the 
greater  cost  of  folding  by  hand  should  be  con- 
sidered. 


z  ~ 

7  — 


—  61 

—  14 


81  — 
15  — 


9  — 


—  12 


11  —   —  10 


382  Twenty  pages  in  one  section 

TWENTY,   FORTY,  AND   EIGHTY  PAGES 

Twenty  pages  can  be  im- 
posed as  a  16mo,  with  an 
added  inset  of  4  pages, 
by  putting  the  4-page 
inset  in  the  centre  tier 
and  making  the  two  up- 
per and  the  two  lower  tiers 
the  halves  of  a  regular 
16mo.  The  four  pages  of 
this  centre  tier  must  be 
transposed  when  the  sheet 
is  ready  fpr  printing  on 
the  second  side,  and  the 
sheet  after  printing  must 
be  cut  in  six  pieces,  as 
has  been  indicated  in  a 
previous  scheme.  Trans- 
posed pages  9, 12, 11, 10, 
can  then  be  inset  in  the 
centre  of  the  16 -page 
part,  making  the  complete 
section  of  20  pages. 

45     Twenty  pages  in    one          Twenty   pages   can   be 
chase,  as  one  section,  to      .  -,      •  i 

turn  narrow  way  of  paper,     imposed  Without  a  trans- 
position by  putting  the 

offcut  of  4  pages  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  form  and 
turning  the  sheet  on  the  long  cross,  but  this  method 
of  turning  the  sheet  may  be  as  objectionable  as  the 


8  ~ 
1  _ 


—  81 

—  20 


91  — 
17  — 


4 


Twenty  pages  without  transposition    383 


9  —        —  12 


11  _    _  10 


5  —        —16 


81  — 
15  — 


-  8 

-  6 


transposition  of  pages  or 
plates.  (See  Scheme  46.) 
The  pages  of  Scheme  45 
can  be  rearranged  to  make 
two  sections:  one  of  16 
and  one  of  4  pages,  or  one 
of  12  and  one  of  8  pages. 

In  Scheme  46  a  transpo- 
sition of  the  pages  of  the 
inset  is  avoided  by  turn- 
ing the  sheet  on  the  long 
cross.  The  sheet,  first  cut 
the  long  way,  has  two  par- 
allel folds  the  narrow 
way  before  the  inset  is 
inserted. 

When  pages  are  in  the 
customary  proportion  of 
width  1  to  height  1£,  the 
20-page  form  will  be  long 
and  narrow  and  not  prop- 
erly adapted  to  the  shapes 
of  paper  kept  on  sale.  To 
avoid  waste,  paper  has  to 
be  made  to  order  of  pre- 
scribed size.  Papers  on 
sale  are  adapted  only  for  the  small  quarto  shapes 
of  20mo  forms. 

Scheme  47,  practically  a  sheet  of  32  pages  with 
an  added  inset  of  8  pages,  may  serve  for  a  cheap 


8  —        —81 


—        —  L 


1  — 


—  20 


19  — 


—  2 


1  I 

46  Twenty  pages  in  one 
chase,  as  one  section, 
without  a  transposition. 
Turns  on  the  long  cross. 


384 


Forty  pages  in  one  section 


17  —        —  24         21  —       —  20    !     19—       —22         23—       —18 


13  —       —  28 


98  —        —  S    !     9  —         —fig         88—         ~  8 

29—       — 12     i     11—       —30         27—       —14 


91  —       —  QZ 
1  -          —40 


58—         ~  6 
33—         —  8 


01  —       —  IS 

7  -         —34 


9S  —       —  SI 
39—         -  2 


47    Forty  pages  in  one  chase  :  one  section,  inset  of  8  pages. 

pamphlet  on  thin  paper,  but  not  for  a  neat  book. 
The  imposition  could  be  varied  by  making  up  the 
form  in  two  sections  of  20  pages.  Either  method 
will  make  uneven  and  troublesome  folding.  For 
pages  of  regular  shape,  this  imposition,  5  pages 
high,  8  pages  wide,  calls  for  paper  that  is  nearly 
square,  and  that  may  have  to  be  made  to  order. 


The  leaflet 


385 


Eighty  pages  in  one  chase,  in  five  sections  of  16 
pages  each,  can  be  imposed,  8  pages  high  and  10 
pages  wide,  for  a  more  shapely  sheet  of  paper.  The 
insetting  of  many  sections  is  to  be  avoided,  for  it 
produces  a  bunchy  back  and  uneven  margins. 

THE    LEAFLET 

Leaflet  is  the  name  given  to  folded  but  unsewed 
leaves  of  6,  8,  or  more  pages.  A  rule  border  about 
every  page  is  common ;  the  space  between  pages  is 
narrow  but  uniform  in  width.  There  is  no  arbi- 
trary rule  about  imposition :  the  first  page  may  be 
to  the  left,  to  the  right,  or  in  the  centre,  but  the 
pages  following  page  2  are  laid  down  in  any  way 
that  establishes  their  relation  one  to  another. 


First  page  at  right  in  print. 
5  4-3  2 


First  page  at  left  in  print. 
48     Six-page  leaflets  in  strip  1  page  high. 

These  pages  are  to  be  printed  on  a  long  slip  of 
paper,  and  to  be  turned  on  the  short  cross  to  make 
duplicates.  The  leaflet  of  10  or  more  pages  is 

25 


386  Small  pamphlets 

generally  imposed  2  pages  high,  to  turn  on  the 
long  cross,  so  that  the  sheet  can  be  cut  through  its 
longer  diameter.  This  treatment  makes  the  press- 
work  of  leaflets  on  small  presses  more  manageable. 


iiiiiiiii  iiiiii  jijiiii'  Illlilii 

m"z  '""s"  t"  fi" 

"""9" 

1             10            9              8 

7 

49    Ten-page  leaflet  2  pages  high. 

To  make  sure  of  exact  register,  the  paper  for  leaf- 
lets should  be  squared  and  accurately  trimmed. 

SMALL  PAMPHLETS 

Printed  pages  with  narrow  margins  on  leaves  1  x 
1£  inches,  and  sometimes  still  smaller,  may  be  re- 
quired of  the  printer.  To  make  up  a  form  of  very 
small  pages  after  the  methods  of  ordinary  book- 
work,  to  fold,  sew  or  stitch,  and  trim  each  one 
separately,  calls  for  nice  attention  to  detail.  These 
pages  are  usually  printed  in  small  forms  on  small 
presses.  When  there  are  many  pages  to  be  folded 
together,  or  even  when  the  section  has  an  inset,  the 
suggestions  for  the  narrowing  of  margins  made  on 
pages  366-7  of  this  work  should  be  followed.  Care 
in  folding,  stitching,  and  trimming  is  needed. 


Trimming  of  small  pamphlets         387 

Small  pamphlets  of  8  pages  can  be  printed  and 
bound  with  neatness  and  economy  by  electrotyping 
the  pages  to  make  four  or  more  duplicates,  which 
may  be  imposed  after  this  scheme  with  heads  one 
way,  and  without  any  allowance  for  the  waste  of 
paper  in  trimming : 


i  _ 


—  8         5  — 


—  4 


3  — 


—  6         7  — 


—  2 


1  —          — 


5  —          —  4 


3  — 


—  6         7  — 


—  2 


1  — 


_  8         5  -          —  4 


3  — 


—  6 


7'  — 


—  2 


1  ; 

•          'IM1IIII 

"I'l'l'm'im"! 

1 

_ 

-  8         5 

-  4     |     3   - 

'       H,,T7,,,,M 

m,,—  „           (  - 

-   2 

50     Eight  pages  in  quadruplicate,  or  "four  on."     Sheet 
turns  on  short  cross.     Produces  eight  copies. 


For  this  purpose  the  paper  must  be  neatly  squared 
before  it  is  put  to  press.  When  perfected  the  sheet 
should  be  accurately  cut  once  through  the  centre, 
so  that  each  entire  half  of  the  paper  can  be  folded 


388  New  method  of  collating 

in  one  piece  by  edges  of  paper  and  not  by  print. 
Each  half  of  the  sheet  may  then  receive  a  separate 
sewing  or  stitching  for  each  single  pamphlet.  This 
done,  the  folded  work  may  be  put  under  the  smash- 
ing-machine to  reduce  the  paper  to  a  manageable 
flatness  for  the  cutting-machine.  If  the  head  and 
tail  margins  have  been  accurately  adjusted,  the  knife 
that  cuts  them  apart  will,  by  the  same  cut,  effec- 
tually trim  heads  and  tails.  This  method  saves  time, 
but  it  is  not  practicable  for  thick  paper.  Thin 
pamphlets  can  be  imposed  "  three  or  four  on,"  so 
that  each  half  of  the  perfected  sheet  can  be  folded 
together  and  stitched  and  cut  apart,  and  this  will 
save  the  expense  of  a  separate  folding,  stitching, 
and  trimming  for  each  pamphlet. 

A  NEW   METHOD    OF   COLLATING 

A  gathering  of  the  different  sections  of  a  book  that 
has  its  signature-marks  at  the  foot  of  the  page  un- 
avoidably conceals  all  these  marks  but  the  one  on 
the  first  section.  To  make  sure  that  the  gatherer 
has  assembled  the  sections  in  consecutive  order,  the 
collator  must  quickly  but  somewhat  imperfectly 
separate  the  sections  and  verify  their  order  by 
count.  This  separating  and  counting  of  the  sec- 
tions causes  some  delay,  and  may  tend  to  mental 
confusion  from  its  monotony  when  the  work  is 
done  in  haste.  A  gathering  may  be  passed  that  has 
a  section  doubled  or  transposed  or  omitted  entirely. 


Folding -machines  389 

To  prevent  this  fault  a  new  system  of  collating- 
marks  has  been  devised  that  enables  the  collator  to 
check  the  sections  rapidly  without  separating  them. 
The  new  marks  are  bits  of  flat-faced  brass  rule, 
about  one  quarter  of  an  inch  long  and  three  points 
wide,  that  are  printed  exactly  upon  the  central  fold- 
ing of  the  back  margin  of  the  outer  leaf  of  each  sec- 


tion. Each  bit  of  brass  rule  is  placed  in  a  different 
position  on  its  own  section,  so  that  the  combined 
rules  shall  present  the  appearance  of  a  diagonal 
black  line  with  breaks  at  graduated  distances.  So 
treated,  the  collator  can  see  at  first  glance  whether 
all  the  sections  are  or  are  not  in  numerical  order.  A 
section  doubled  will  show  a  noticeably  thicker  black 
line  j  a  section  omitted,  a  white  gap ;  a  section  mis- 
placed will  break  the  regularity  .of  the  diagonal  line. 
As  these  narrow  black  lines  are  completely  hidden 
by  sewing,  gluing,  and  binding,  they  are  no  disfig- 
urement to  the  bound  book.  For  thick  pamphlets 
to  be  bound  in  haste  this  new  method  is  of  value. 

FOLDING-MACHINES 

Many  of  the  schemes  in  this  chapter  are  suitable 
for  the  old  forms  of  folding-machines  that  still  keep 
in  favor.  There  are,  however,  machines  for  which 
they  are  not  fitted.  To  meet  increasing  demands 


390  Folding -machines 

for  greater  speed  and  reduced  cost,  printing-  and 
folding-machines  have  been  introduced  that  take 
on  sheets  of  unusually  large  size,  with  new  devices 
for  automatic  feeding,  pointing,  and  folding.  They 
are  made  by  different  manufacturers  from  different 
plans,  but  they  have  little  flexibility  $  as  a  general 
rule,  they  can  fold  sheets  in  one  way  and  no  other. 
The  scheme  required  for  one  is  impracticable  for 
another.  In  one  variety  of  machine,  the  bolts  of 
folded  leaves  are  at  the  tails  and  not  at  the  heads 
of  pages ;  in  another,  64  pages  are  first  folded  alter- 
nately forward  and  then  backward  in  four  parallel 
strips,  and  lastly  cross-folded  to  produce  four  un- 
separated  sections  of  16  pages  each ;  in  another,  the 
sheet  is  first  cut  in  parallel  strips,  and  one  strip  is 
overlapped  by  another  and  again  cross-cut  by  the 
last  operation  of  the  folding  device.1 

These  machines  are  most  useful  for  magazines 
and -work  of  like  nature  that  must  be  done  quickly 
and  at  small  cost.  In  the  hands  of  careful  opera- 
tors they  can  do  accurate  folding,  but  for  general 
service  on  short  editions  bookbinders  prefer  hand- 
work or  the  older  and  simpler  forms  of  folders.  For 

i  The  schemes  shown  in  the  mated  pages  must  be  one  more 

guide-books  of  the  manufactur-  in  number  than  the  entire  num- 

ers  appear  strange  to  the  inex-  ber  of    pages   in  that  section, 

pert,  but  they  all  conform  to  When  the  imposer  of  pages  or 

the  general  rules  that  must  gov-  plates  has  studied  the  scheme, 

ern   all  impositions:    the   first  and  knows  how  the  sheet  will  be 

and  last  pages  of  each  section  turned  or  how  the  pages  will  be 

must  be  mates ;  these  mates  are  lapped,  he  will  need  the  manu- 

always  one  odd  and  one  even  facturer's  guide-book  for  a  first 

page ;  the  sum  total  of  any  two  imposition  only. 


Folding -machines  391 

this  reason  it  is  not  practicable  to  present  a  series 
of  schemes  of  imposition  for  machine-folding  that 
would  prove  generally  useful. 

The  forms  for  some  kinds  of  machine-folders 
need  points  or  slitters  (and  sometimes  both)  as 
aids  to  accurate  register.  The  proper  position  in 
the  form  for  these  devices  varies  in  different  ma- 
chines, and  special  direction  for  this  purpose  should 
be  had  from  the  binder  who  will  fold  the  sheets. 
For  a  form  of  many  pages  on  the  double  sheet,  the 
points  are  usually  put  fifteen  inches  apart,  one  tier 
or  row  of  pages  distant  from  the  centre  of  the  full 
sheet.  When  the  sheets  are  printed  on  the  reverse 
side  the  points  will  appear  in  a  similar  position  on 
the  other  half  of  the  sheet.  It  is  to  be  supposed 
that  the  sheet  will  be  accurately  cut  in  halves  by 
the  circular  knife  attached  to  the  printing-press. 
The  cut  edge  so  produced  will  be  the  feed-edge  of 
the  folding-machine. 

The  slitter  is  a  bit  of  brass  rule,  five  eighths  of 
an  inch  face  (to  be  had  of  the  manufacturer  of  the 
folding-machine),  which  is  screwed  down  immov- 
ably on  wood  furniture  in  the  form.  The  attach- 
ment of  the  slitters  is  a  work  of  nice  discretion. 
They  must  perceptibly  stab  through  the  paper  in 
the  act  of  impression ;  but  if  set  too  high  they  will 
blacken  the  sheet,  cut  the  tympan,  and  gash  the 
inking-rollers.  It  is  customary  to  set  them  a  trifle 
lower  than  type-high,  and  to  depend  upon  a  pasted 
overlay  attached  to  the  tympan  for  a  perforation 


392  Concluding  remarks 

of  the  paper  to  be  printed.  This  treatment  that 
prevents  one  fault  may  make  another.  An  overlay 
too  thick  will  cause  the  sheet  to  stand  off  too  far 
from  the  tympan  and  be  the  cause  of  bad  register. 
The  cutting  of  the  tympan  must  be  avoided,  but 
exact  register  must  be  had.  Experience  is  needed 
for  the  proper  adjustment  of  the  slitters. 


CONCLUDING    REMARKS 

The  schemes  of  this  chapter  are  for  books  to  be 
sewed  and  not  side-stitched.  The  widths  of  margins 
(but  imperfectly  presented  by  reason  of  the  small 
size  of  the  diagrams)  are  those  of  books  planned 
for  cloth  cases.  For  pamphlets  or  magazines  to 
be  side-stitched  with  thread  or  wire,  the  back  mar- 
gins should  be  much  wider  and  the  front  margins 
narrower.  Some  printers  make  the  front  and  back 
margins  of  the  side-stitched  pamphlet  nearly  equal 
in  width,  allowing  but  one  pica  or  two  picas  more 
for  front  margin.  This  is  done  in  the  belief  that 
the  wire  stitch  will  conceal  as  much  paper  in  the 
back  as  will  be  wasted  in  the  front  by  the  knife  of 
the  bookbinder  when  he  trims  the  fore  edge.  This 
concealment  and  waste  of  paper  is  too  variable  to 
be  provided  for  by  an  arbitrary  rule.  The  adjuster 
of  margins  should  consult  the  binder  as  to  the 
probable  loss  of  paper,  and  regulate  his  margins 
accordingly. 


Concluding  remarks  393 

Offcuts  should  be  inset  in  the  central  fold  of  the 
larger  part  of  the  sheet  from  which  they  have  been 
separated.  To  plan  a  separate  section  of  the  off- 
cut,  to  follow  the  larger  part,  will  compel  needless 
sewing  and  make  improper  stiffness  in  opening 
the  leaves  of  the  bound  book.  This  suggestion 
applies  to  thin  paper  only.  Thick  sections  should 
be  avoided,  especially  when  the  leaves  are  small  and 
the  paper  is  thick.  In  a  form  of  24  pages  on  thick 
paper  it  will  be  better  practice  to  impose  for  two 
sections  of  12  or  three  sections  of  8  pages.  This 
treatment  does  not  conduce  to  cheapness,  but  it 
does  produce  better  work  even  for  the  side-stitched 
pamphlet.  The  paper  cover  is  seldom  neatly  pasted 
over  thick  sections ;  cover  and  leaves  will  yawn. 

In  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental  languages,  reading 
proceeds  from  right  to  left  in  every  line ;  the  first 
page  of  the  book  is  on  the  leaf  that  Western  usage 
gives  to  our  last  page.  This  reversal  of  our  order 
compels  a  similar  change  in  the  imposition  of  pages 
of  Hebrew,  but  the  change  is  quickly  understood, 
and  does  not  require  special  schemes.  In  the  16mo, 
page  1  is  put  where  page  16  is  placed  in  the  printed 
scheme ;  page  2  displaces  15,  and  every  page  fol- 
lowing pursues  the  same  order. 

The  increased  width  that  should  be  given  to  the 
back  margin  of  a  pamphlet  with  a  paper  cover 
should  never  be  determined  by  a  guess  as  to  the 
probable  thickness  of  the  sections.  A  dummy  of 
all  the  sections  properly  sewed  or  stitched  is  the 


394  Concluding  remarks 

only  certain  guide.  The  purposed  irregularity  of 
margins  in  the  pages  of  the  text  (least  at  back, 
more  at  front,  and  most  at  tail)  is  usually  pre- 
served on  the  outer  pages  of  the  cover.  When  the 
cover  paper  is  intended  to  overlap  all  the  edges  in 
"  circuit  style,"  this  irregularity  must  be  increased. 
For  pamphlets  trimmed  on  three  sides,  the  print  of 
cover  may  be  ordered  with  even  margins  all  around. 

For  a  book  of  prescribed  dimensions,  paper  of 
too  large  size  is  sometimes  furnished.  If  the  excess 
of  paper  is  trivial,  the  adjuster  of  its  margins  may 
add  this  excess  to  the  width  of  the  blanks  pre- 
viously provided  for  the  front  and  tail  margins,  so 
that  it  can  be  trimmed  off  by  the  binder  in  the 
gathered  sections,  but  in  no  case  should  the  back  or 
head  margin  be  enlarged.  For  much  excess  (and 
even  for  small  excess)  it  is  better  practice  to  have 
the  surplus  cut  off  before  the  margins  are  adjusted. 
A  sheet  with  overplus  of  paper  on  one  or  both  ends 
is  always  inconvenient  to  feeder  and  folder.  It 
leads  to  the  making  of  faulty  margins,  to  improper 
folding  and  reckless  trimming. 

The  blanks  about  pages  should  be  calculated  with 
exactness,  so  that  the  printed  pages  can  be  folded 
with  proper  margins  by  the  edges  of  the  paper  as 
truly  as  by  print.  The  more  pages  in  the  form, 
the  more  the  need  of  exactness.  A  true  sheet  of 
its  own  paper  is  the  best  guide  for  determining  the 
proper  distance  between  pages,  which  should  be 
used  as  is  shown  in  illustrations  on  pages  303  and 


Concluding  remarks  395 

304  of  this  book.  When  the  paper  has  rough  or 
unevenly  cut  edges,  or  when  a  form  has  to  be  made 
up  before  the  paper  is  in  the  house,  a  measuring- 
rule  may  be  used,  care  being  taken  in  all  cases  to 
have  the  exact  size  of  the  average  sheet. 

In  these  schemes  the  representations  of  chases, 
cross-bars,  quoins,  and  furniture  have  been  omitted 
as  not  helpful  to  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  or- 
derly arrangement  of  pages.  They  divert  the  eye 
from  the  order  of  pages,  which  is  the  chief  purpose 
of  the  schemes.  Cross-bars,  always  useful,  are  not 
always  possible.  In  forms  of  plates  laid  on  blocks, 
and  even  in  some  forms  of  letterpress,  they  may 
have  to  be  rejected  or  be  placed  in  different  posi- 
tions from  those  in  the  diagrams.  As  every  print- 
ing-house has  chases  of  various  sizes  and  shapes, 
the  furniture  of  each  form  must  be  accommodated 
to  the  chase  and  its  types.  For  the  ordinary  form 
of  type,  the  customary  disposition  of  its  furniture 
is  indicated  in  the  illustrations  on  pages  63, 303, 
304.  To  repeat  these  adjuncts  in  every  scheme  is 
not  of  any  advantage. 

The  lines  of  dotted  rules  in  the  schemes,  that  in- 
dicate where  the  printed  sheet  must  be  cut  by  the 
hand-folder,  are  attachments  of  importance.  To  the 
novice  in  imposition  they  show  the  correlation  of 
pages  that  must  be  kept  in  distinct  sections,  when 
these  pages  are  laid  down  in  different  parts  of 
the  sheet.  This  grouping  together  of  the  pages 
of  separate  sections  facilitates  the  study  of  their 


396  Concluding  remarks 

arrangement.  In  Scheme  5  (page  341)  the  relation 
of  pages  to  one  another  in  different  parts  of  the 
sheet  is  made  plainer  by  color. 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  not  to  present 
schemes  that  will  be  copied  unthinkingly  by  a 
young  compositor ;  it  is  to  lead  him  to  an  under- 
standing of  elementary  principles,  so  that  he  can 
fprmulate  new  schemes  for  emergencies.  Sugges- 
tions and  explanations  that  may  be  helpful  accom- 
pany many  of  the  diagrams. 

The  study  of  imposition  has  been  made  need- 
lessly repelling  by  the  exhibition  of  too  many 
schemes.  Some  are  obsolete  and  others  impracti- 
cable. It  was  the  intent  of  the  writer  to  present 
only  the  schemes  that  are  in  regular  use  for  the 
ordinary  sewed  book  of  thin  sections,  but  the 
frequency  of  positive  orders  from  some  economical 
publishers  of  pamphlets  for  one  thick  section  has 
led  me  to  add  a  few  schemes  that  are  not  recom- 
mended. This  is  done  reluctantly,  for  thick  sec- 
tions make  mean  bindings.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  the  increasing  use  of  wire-stitching  machines 
will  lead  to  a  general  preference  for  thin  sections 
and  a  more  tidy  binding  of  the  cheap  pamphlet. 


ERGENTHALER 


'MACHINE-COMPOSITION 

A  review  of  methods  .  .  .  General  organization  .  .  .  The 
assembling  and  keyboard  mechanisms  .  .  .  Learning  to 
operate  .  .  .  Management  of  the  machine  .  .  .  Tempera- 
ture of  metal  .  .  .  Treatment  of  matrices  .  .  .  Treatment 
of  spaces  .  .  .  The  melting-pot  .  .  .  Mould  and  disk 
The  assembling  elevator  .  .  .  Correct  keyboard  fingering 


A  REVIEW   OF   METHODS 


OR  many  years  it  has  been  the 
dream  of  inventors  to  provide 
a    mechanical   substitute    for 
hand-composition,  and    many 
hundred    patents    have    been 
granted  in  America  and  Europe 
on  machines  for  this  purpose. 
An  early  method  proposed  was  to  print  the  matter 
by  a  machine  similar  to  a  type-writer,  in  transfer- 
ink  on  paper,  and  to  transfer  the  print  so  made  to  a 


398  Experimental  machines 

lithographic  stone,  or  a  plate  of  zinc  or  other  metal 
from  which  printing  could  be  done  by  lithographic 
processes.  In  other  cases  the  metal  plates  were 
etched  in  order  to  leave  the  transferred  characters 
in  relief. 

Many  experimental  machines  have  been  con- 
structed for  impressing  type-characters  in  the  re- 
quired order  in  papier-mache,  lead,  or  equivalent 
material,  thus  forming  matrices  for  lines  or  pages, 
from  which  stereotype  plates  were  cast. 

Many  machines  have  been  proposed  and  con- 
structed for  setting  ordinary  founders'  type.  Cer- 
tain of  these  machines,  such  as  the  Thorne  and  the 
Burr,  were  adapted  to  set  the  type  in  continuous 
lines,  which  were  divided  into  shorter  lengths  by  a 
second  operator  and  justified  by  hand. 

Numerous  patents  have  been  issued  for  machines 
adapted  to  compose  ordinary  founders'  type  and 
automatically  justify  the  lines  by  inserting  found- 
ers' spaces. 

The  celebrated  Paige  machine,  originally  con- 
structed in  Hartford,  which  was  successfully  oper- 
ated for  a  time  in  the  office  of  the  Chicago  Herald, 
was  of  this  character.  It  composed  the  type  from 
standing  magazines,  automatically  inserted  the 
spaces  necessary  for  justification,  and  delivered  the 
matter  leaded  or  unleaded,  as  required,  into  the 
galley.  The  same  machine  also  received  the  dead 
matter  and  distributed  the  type  into  the  channels 
on  the  machine.  The  machine  failed  of  commercial 


FIG.  i. 


400  Cox  and  Simplex  machines 

success  because  of  its  extreme  complexity  and  con- 
sequent high  cost. 

The  Cox  machine,  exhibited  about  1899,  was 
adapted  to  compose  and  justify  the  matter  auto-> 
matically.  Corrugated  spaces  were  inserted  in  the 
line  during  composition ;  the  line  was  set  to  an  ex- 
cessive length,  and  justification  was  secured  by  com- 
pressing it  endwise,  the  effect  being  to  flatten  and 
reduce  the  thickness  of  the  spaces.  The  spaces  were 
removed  from  the  dead  matter  by  a  special  machine, 
after  which  the  matter  was  transferred  to  a  third  ma- 
chine, by  which  the  type  was  distributed  into  tubes 
adapted  for  application  to  the  composing-machine. 

The  Simplex  machine,  of  which  a  considerable 
number  are  used  in  the  United  States,  consists  of 
an  upright  rotary  barrel  or  magazine  having  ver- 
tical grooves  to  carry  the  types,  which  are  delivered 
by  means  of  keys  from  the  lower  ends  of  the  grooves 
to  a  revolving  disk,  by  which  they  are  assembled  in 
a  continuous  line.  This  line,  advancing  through  a 
suitable  guide,  is  divided  by  hand  into  shorter  lines, 
which  are  justified  by  hand,  as  usual.  The  upper 
portion  of  the  grooved  barrel  revolves  intermit- 
tingly;  the  lines  of  the  dead  matter  are  inserted 
into  its  grooves  and  are  carried  around  step  by  step 
over  the  upper  ends  of  the  grooves  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  barrel.  These  lower  grooves  have  at 
the  upper  end  small  teeth  arranged  in  various  com- 
binations corresponding  to  the  nicks  in  the  various 
types,  so  that  the  types  stowed  above  in  the  upper 


Empire  and  McMillan  machines       401 

revolving  cylinder  are  permitted  to  enter  only  those 
grooves  which  have  teeth  corresponding  to  their 
nicks.  In  this  manner  each  letter  is  delivered  to 
its  proper  groove. 

In  the  Empire  and  other  machines  the  types,  car- 
ried in  vertical  magazines,  are  released  at  the  lower 
end  by  finger-keys.  They  slide  down  through  con- 
verging grooves  to  the  assembling-point,  where  they 
are  assembled  or  composed  in  a  continuous  unjusti- 
fied line.  This  line  is  divided  into  shorter  lengths 
by  hand  and  justified  as  in  hand-composition.  The 
distribution  into  the  magazines  to  be  used  on  the 
composing  mechanism  is  effected  in  a  separate 
machine  in  which  the  nicked  types  are  carried  suc- 
cessively past  a  series  of  small  slides,  or  feelers, 
cooperating  with  the  nicks  to  deliver  the  types  to 
their  appropriate  channels. 

In  the  McMillan  machine  the  types,  carried  in 
separate  tubes,  were  automatically  composed  with 
tentative  spaces  into  lines  of  approximately  the  re- 
quired measure.  The  original  spaces  were  auto- 
matically rejected  in  succession  and  thicker  spaces 
inserted  until  the  line  was  the  required  length. 
Distribution  was  effected  by  an  independent  rotary 
machine  which  delivered  the  type  into  single  tubes, 
one  for  each  letter,  these  tubes  being  subsequently 
transferred  when  full  to  the  composing-machine. 

Another  class  of  machines  was  designed  to  cast 
each  character  singly  and  assemble  them  in  line, 
in  the  order  in  which  they  were  to  appear  in  print. 

26 


402  The  Lanston  mechanism 

A  machine  of  this  class,  by  C.  S.Westcott,  exhibited 
at  the  Centennial  Exposition  of  1876,  cast  and  de- 
livered the  type  in  unjustified  lines,  justification 
being  subsequently  effected  by  hand.  In  this  ma- 
chine the  finger-keys  representing  the  letters  caused 
the  corresponding  matrices  to  be  transferred  to  the 
mould  which  was  automatically  adjusted  to  cooper- 
ate with  the  matrix  and  produce  each  letter  of  the 
required  size. 

The  Lanston  mechanism  consists  of  two  parts : 
first,  an  independent  keyboard  by  which  a  paper 
ribbon  is  provided  with  perforations  representing 
the  various  characters  and  spaces;  the  justifying 
perforations  being  made  by  touching  the  keys  in- 
dicated to  the  operator  by  a  scale  which  auto- 
matically calculates  the  size  of  spaces  necessary 
to  justify  the  line :  second,  a  casting  mechanism, 
controlled  in  its  action  by  the  perforated  ribbon  and 
serving  to  cast  and  assemble  individual  letters  in 
the  required  order,  and  also  to  cast  and  insert  in 
each  line  the  spaces  to  effect  justification.  The 
casting  operation  is  performed  in  the  reverse  order 
from  that  in  which  the  matter  is  to  be  read. 

The  Johnson  Tachytype  and  the  Goodson  Grapho- 
type  are  machines  on  the  general  plan  of  the  Lan- 
ston, being  controlled  by  perforated  paper  ribbons 
and  acting  to  cast  the  spaces  and  the  type  in  the 
required  order. 

i  The  last  three  machines  are  based  on  the  use  of 
the  group  of  matrices  representing  the  various 


The  Mergenthaler  Linotype  403 

characters  in  connection  with  an  adjustable  mould 
similar  to  that  of  the  type-founding  machines.  The 
matrices  are  automatically  moved,  so  that  each 
letter  is  presented  to  the  mould,  and  the  mould 
adjusted  for  a  body  of  corresponding  size. 

THE  MERGENTHALER  LINOTYPE 

The  Mergenthaler  Linotype  machine,  a  modern  ex- 
ample of  which  is  shown  in  Figure  1,  appeared  in 
crude  form  about  1886.  This  machine  differs  widely 


FIG.  2. 

from  all  others  in  that  it  is  adapted  to  produce  the 
type-faces  for  each  line  properly  justified  on  the  edge 
of  a  solid  slug  or  linotype  (shown  in  Figure  2). 

These  slugs,  automatically  produced  and  assem- 
bled by  the  machine,  are  used  in  the  same  manner 
as  other  type-forms,  whether  for  direct  printing  or 
for  electrotyping,  and  are  remelted  after  use. 

GENERAL  ORGANIZATION 

The  general  organization  of  the  machine  will  first 
be  described,  after  which  the  details  will  be  more 


404  The  matrices 

fully  explained,  and  attention  plainly  directed  to  the 
various  parts  and  actions  which  require  special 
consideration. 


FIG.  3. 

The  machine  contains,  as  the  vital  element,  about 
sixteen  hundred  matrices,  such  as  are  shown  in 
Figure  3,  each  consisting  of  a  small  brass  plate 
having  in  one  edge  the  female  character  or  matrix 
proper,  and  in  the  upper  end  a  series  of  teeth,  used 
as  hereinafter  explained  for  distributing  the  mat- 
rices after  use  to  their  proper  places  in  the  magazine 
of  the  machine.  There  are  in  the  machine  a  number 
of  matrices  for  each  letter  and  also  matrices  repre- 
senting special  characters,  and  spaces  or  quadrats 
of  different  thicknesses  for  use  in  table-work,  etc. 
There  is  a  series  of  finger  keys  representing  the 
various  characters  and  spaces,  and  the  machine  is 
so  organized  that  on  manipulating  the  keys  it  se-* 
lects  the  matrices  in  the  order  in  which  their  char- 
acters are  to  appear  in  print,  and  assembles  them 


The  matrices  assembled  405 

in  a  line,  as  shown  in  Figure  4,  with  wedge-shaped 
spaces  or  justifiers  between  the  words.  The  series 
of  matrices  thus  assembled  in  line  forms  a  line  mat- 
rix, or,  in  other  words,  a  line  of  female  dies  adapted 


FIG.  4. 

to  mould  or  form  a  line  of  raised  type  on  a  slug 
cast  against  the  matrices.  After  the  matrix  line 
is  composed  it  is  automatically  transferred  to  the 
face  of  a  slotted  mould  into  which  molten  type- 
metal  is  delivered  to  form  a  slug  or  linotype  against 
the  matrices.  This  done,  the  matrices  are  returned 
to  the  magazine  and  distributed,  to  be  again  com- 
posed in  new  relations  for  succeeding  lines. 

Figure  5  illustrates  the  general  organization  of 
the  machine. 

A  represents  an  inclined  channelled  magazine  in 
which  the  matrices  are  stored.  Each  channel  has 
at  the  lower  end  an  escapement  B  to  release  the  mat- 
rices one  at  a  time.  Each  of  these  escapements  is 


406       General  organization  of  machine 

connected  by  a  rod  C  and  intermediate  devices  to 
one  of  the  finger-keys  in  the  keyboard  D.     These 


FIG.  5. 


The  spaces  or  justifiers  407 

keys  represent  the  various  characters  as  in  a  type- 
writer. The  keys  are  depressed  in  the  order  in 
which  the  characters  and  spaces  are  to  appear, 
and  the  matrices,  released  successively  from  the 
lower  end  of  the  magazine,  descend  between  the 
guides  E  to  the  surface  of  an  inclined  travelling 
belt  F,  by  which  they  are  carried  downward  and 
delivered  successively  into  a  channel  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  assembling  elevator  G,  in  which  they 
are  advanced  by  a  star-shaped  wheel,  seen  at  the 
right. 

The  wedge-shaped  spaces  or  justifiers  I  are  held 
in  a  magazine  H,  from  which  they  are  delivered  at 
proper  intervals  by  finger-key  J"in  the  keyboard,  so> 
that  they  may  pass  downward  and  assume  their 
proper  positions  in  the  line  of  matrices. 

When  the  composition  of  the  line  is  completed, 
the  assembling  elevator  G  is  raised  and  the  line  is 
transferred,  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines,  first  to  the 
left  and  then  downward  to  the  casting  position  in 
front  of  the  slotted  mould  seated  in  and  extending 
through  the  vertical  wheel  JT,  as  shown  in  Figures  5 
and  6.  The  line  of  matrices  is  pressed  against  and 
closes  the  front  of  the  mould,  the  characters  on  the 
matrices  standing  directly  opposite  the  slot  in  the 
mould,  as  shown.  The  back  of  the  mould  commu- 
nicates with  and  is  closed  by  the  mouth  of  a  melting- 
pot  M,  containing  a  supply  of  molten  metal  and 
heated  by  a  Bun  sen  burner  thereunder.  Within  the 
pot  is  a  vertical  pump-plunger  which  acts  at  the 


408  Formation  of  linotype  slug 

proper  time  to  drive  the  molten  metal  through,  the 
perforated  mouth  of  the  pot  into  the  mould  and  into 

MOLD    NO.l 


COMPOSED 
MATRICES 


MOLD 
WHEEL 


10.2 

FIG.  6. 

all  the  characters  in  the  matrices.  The  metal,  solid- 
ifying, forms  a  slug  or  linotype  bearing  on  its  edge, 
in  relief,  type-characters  produced  from  the  matrices. 
The  matrices  and  the  pot  are  immediately  separated 
from  the  mould,  and  the  mould  wheel  rotates  until 
the  slug  contained  in  the  mould  is  presented  in  front 
of  an  ejector  blade,  where  the  slug  is  ejected  from 
the  mould  through  a  pair  of  knives,  which  trim  the 
sides  to  the  required  size,  into  the  receiving  galley, 
as  shown  in  Figure  7. 

After  the  line  of  matrices  and  spaces  has  served 


The  distributing  mechanism          409 

its  purpose,  it  is  raised  from  the  casting  position 
and  moved  to  the  right,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines  and  arrows  in  Figure  5.  The  teeth  in  the 


MOLD 


EJECTOR  PUSHING 
LINOTYPE  FROM 
MOLD  TO  GALLEY 


ARM   TO  CARRY 

SLUGS  OVER  IN 

GALLEY 


RECEIVING 

GALLEY 


LINOTYPES 

READY  FOR  USE 

FIG.  7. 


upper  ends  of  the  matrices  are  engaged  with  a 
toothed  bar  R,  known  as  the  second  elevator.  This 
elevator  swings  upward,  as  shown  by  dotted  lines, 
carrying  the  matrices  to  the  level  of  the  upper  end 
of  the  magazine,  and  leaving  the  spaces  or  justifiers 
behind  to  be  transferred  to  their  magazine  H. 

The  distributing  mechanism  consists  essentially 
of  a  fixed  bar  T,  lying  in  a  horizontal  position  above 
the  upper  end  of  the  magazine,  and  having  along 
its  lower  edge,  as  shown  in  Figures  5  and  8,  hori- 
zontal teeth  to  engage  the  teeth  in  the  upper  end 
of  the  matrices  and  hold  them  in  suspension.  The 
teeth  of  the  matrix  for  each  letter  differ  in  number 


410  Travel  of  the  matrices 

or  arrangement,  or  both,  from  the  teeth  of  matrices 
bearing  other  letters,  and  the  teeth  on  the  lower 
edge  of  the  distributor  bar  are  correspondingly 
varied  in  arrangement  at  different  points  in  the 
length  of  the  bar. 

The  matrices  are  moved  forward  into  engage- 
ment with  the  distributor  bar  and  also  into  en- 
gagement with  the  threads  of  horizontal  screws 
U,  which  are  extended  parallel  with  the  distributor 
bar  and  constantly  rotated,  so  that  they  cause  the 
matrices  to  travel  one  after  another  along  the  dis- 


FlG.  8. 


tributor  and  over  the  mouths  of  the  channels  in  the 
magazines.  Each  matrix  is  held  in  suspension 
until  it  arrives  over  its  proper  channel,  where  for 
the  first  time  its  teeth  bear  such  relation  to  those 


Assembling  and  keyboard  mechanisms    411 

of  the  bar  that  it  is  released  and  permitted  to  fall 
into  the  magazine,  as  shown  in  Figure  8. 

The  speed  of  the  machine,  which  is  commonly 
from  four  to  five  thousand  ems  per  hour,  but  which 
has  reached  ten  thousand  and  upward  in  competi- 
tive trials,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  matrices  pur- 
sue a  circulatory  course,  leaving  the  magazine  at 
the  lower  end,  passing  thence  to  the  line  and  to  the 
casting  mechanism,  and  finally  returning  to  the  top 
of  the  magazine.  This  permits  the  composition  of 
one  line,  the  casting  of  another,  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  a  third  to  proceed  simultaneously. 

ASSEMBLING    AND    KEYBOARD   MECHANISMS 

The  matrices  pass  through  the  magazine  by  grav- 
ity. Their  release  is  effected  by  mechanisms  shown 
in  Figures  9  and  10,  which  are  vertical  sections 
through  the  magazine,  the  keyboard  and  interme- 
diate connection  s.  Under  each  channel  of  the  maga- 
zine there  is  an  escapement  J5,  consisting  of  a  small 
lever  rocking  at  its  centre  on  a  horizontal  pivot, 
and  carrying  at  its  opposite  ends  two  dogs  or  pawls 
&,  6,  which  are  projected  up  alternately  into  the 
magazine  by  the  motion  of  the  lever.  The  key-rod 
0,  suspended  from  the  rear  end  of  the  escapement 
By  tends  to  hold  the  lower  pawl  &  in  an  elevated 
position,  as  shown  in  Figure  9,  so  that  it  engages 
under  the  upper  ear  of  the  foremost  matrix  to  pre- 
vent its  escape. 


412       Figure  showing  vertical  section 

When  the  escapement  B  is  rocked  it  withdraws  the 
lower  pawl  b,  as  shown  in  Figure  10,  at  the  same 


Figure  showing  vertical  section        413 

time  raising  the  upper  pawl,  so  that  it  engages  and 
momentarily  arrests  the  next  matrix.     As  soon  as 


FIG.  10. 

the  first  matrix  has  escaped,  the  escapement  re- 
sumes its  original  position,  the  upper  pawl  falling, 


414  The  escapements 

while  the  lower  one  rises  so  as  to  hold  the  second 
matrix,  which  assumes  the  position  previously  oc- 
cupied by  the  one  released. 

Thus  it  is  that  the  alternate  rising  and  falling 
of  the  two  escapement  pawls  permits  the  matrices 
to  escape  one  at  a  time.  It  is  evident  that  the 
escapements  could  be  operated  directly  by  rods 
connected  with  the  finger-keys,  but  this  direct  con- 
nection is  objectionable  because  of  the  labor  re- 
quired on  the  part  of  the  operator,  and  the  danger 
that  the  keys  may  not  be  fully  depressed.  Moreover, 
it  is  essential  that  the  escapements  should  act  in- 
dividually with  moderate  speed  to  the  end  that  the 
matrices  may  be  properly  engaged  and  disengaged 
by  the  pawls.  For  these  reasons,  and  to  secure 
easy  and  uniform  action  of  the  parts,  the  mechanism 
shown  in  Figures  9  and  10  is  introduced  between 
the  finger-keys  and  escapements.  The  vertical  rods 
(7,  which  actuate  the  escapements,  are  guided  in 
the  main  frame  and  each  urged  downward  by  a 
spring  c.  Each  rod  C  terminates  directly  over  one 
end  of  a  rising  and  falling  yoke-bar  c2,  turning  on 
a  pivot  c3  at  the  opposite  end.  Each  of  the  yokes 
c2  is  slotted  vertically  to  admit  an  eccentric  c4  turn- 
ing on  a  pivot  therein.  A  constantly  rotating  rub- 
ber-covered roll  c5  is  extended  across  the  entire  key- 
board beneath  the  cams,  which  stand  normally  as 
shown  in  Figure  9,  out  of  contact  with  the  roll. 
When  the  parts  are  in  this  position,  the  cam-yoke  is 
sustained  at  its  free  end  by  the  yoke-trigger  c6,  and  a 


Depression  of  finger  key 


415 


cross-bar  in  the  cam  engages  a  vertical  pin  c1  on 
the  frame,  whereby  the  cam  is  prevented  from  fall- 
ing on  to  the  roller,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  do. 
Each  of  the  yoke-triggers  c6  is  connected  with  a  ver- 
tical bar  c8,  which  is  in  turn  connected  to  the  rear 
end  of  a  finger-key  lever  D.  The  parts  stand  nor- 
mally at  rest  in  the  position  shown  in  Figure  9,  the 
roll  c5  turning  freely  under  the  cam  without  effect 
thereon. 

When  the  finger -key  is  depressed  it  raises  the 
bar  c8,  which  in  turn  trips  the  yoke-trigger  c6  from 


LINE  ASSEMBLING 
MECHANISM 


FIG.  11. 


under  the  cam-yoke  c2,  permitting  the  latter  to  fall, 
thereby  lowering  the  cam  c4  into  peripheral  engage- 
ment with  the  rubber  roll,  at  the  same  time  disen- 
gaging the  cam  from  the  stop-pin  c7.  The  roll, 


416 


Action  of  the  cam 


engaging  frictionally  with  the  cam,  causes  the  latter 
to  turn  on  its  centre  in  the  direction  indicated  by 
the  arrow  in  Figure  10. 


FIG.  12. 

Owing  to  the  eccentric  shape  of  the  cam,  its  ro- 
tation while  resting  on  the  roller  causes  it  to  lift 
the  yoke  c2  above  its  original  position,  so  that  it 
acts  upon  the  escapement  rod  (7,  lifting  the  same 
and  causing  it  to  reverse  the  position  of  the  escape- 
ment JB,  to  release  the  matrix,  as  plainly  seen  in 
Figure  10. 


FIG.  13. 


While  this  is  taking  place  the  yoke-trigger  c6  re- 
sumes its  first  position,  as  shown  in  dotted  lines  in 
Figure  10,  so  that  as  the  rotating  cam  lowers  the 
yoke,  it  is  again  supported  in  its  first  position,  the 


Descent  of  the  matrices 


417 


cam  at  the  same  time  turning  forward  by  momentum 
out  of  engagement  with  the  roll  and  until  arrested 
in  its  original  position  by  the  pin  c1. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  parts  between  each 
key  lever  and  escapement  operate  independently  of 
the  others,  so  that  a  number  of  cams  may  be  in 
engagement  with  the  rollers  at  one  time,  and  a 


1  2 


FIG.  14. 

number  of  escapements  at  different  stages  of  their 
action  at  one  time. 

The  matrices  falling  from  the  magazine  descend 
through  the  front  channels  and  are  received  on  the 
inclined  belt  F,  on  which  they  are  carried  over  and 
guided  on  the  upper  rounding  surface  of  the  as- 
sembler entrance-block/1,  by  which  they  are  guided 
downward  in  front  of  the  star-wheel  /2,  which 
pushes  them  forward  one  after  another. 

The  spaces  or  justifiers  J,  released  from  their 
magazine  H,  as  heretofore  described,  descend  into 
the  assembler  G  in  front  of  the  star- wheel  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  matrices. 

The  line  in  course  of  composition  is  sustained  at 
its  front  end  by  a  yielding  finger  or  resistant  g,  se- 
cured to  a  horizontal  assembler  slide  g2,  the  purpose 

27 


418          The  matrices  held  by  spring 

of  these  parts  being  to  hold  the  line  together  in 
compact  form. 

As  the  matrices  approach  the  line,  their  upper 
ends  are  carried  over  a  spring  </3,  projecting  through 


FIG.  is. 


the  assembler  face-plate  from  the  rear,  as  shown  in 
Figure  11,  its  purpose  being  to  hold  the  matrices 
forward  and  prevent  them  from  falling  back  in  such 
a  manner  that  succeeding  matrices  and  spaces  or 
justifiers  will  pass  improperly  ahead  of  them.  The 
descending  matrices  also  pass  beneath  a  long  de- 


Action  of  transfer-carriage          419 

pending  spring  g4,  which  should  be  so  adjusted  as 

barely  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  thickest  matrix. 

After  the  composition  of  the  line  is  completed  in 

the  assembling  elevator  G,  as  shown  in  Figure  12, 


FIG.  16. 


the  elevator  is  raised  as  shown  in  Figure  13,  so  as 
to  present  the  line  between  the  depending  fingers 
of  the  transfer-carriage  N,  which  then  moves  to  the 
left  to  the  position  shown  by  dotted  lines  in  Figure 
13,  thereby  bringing  the  line  into  the  first  elevator 
0,  which  then  descends,  carrying  the  line  of  mat- 
rices downward,  as  shown  in  Figure  14,  to  its 


420  The  mould  in  position 

position  in  front  of  the  mould  and  between  the 
confining  jaws  P,  P,  mounted  in  the  main  frame, 
which  determine  the  length  of  the  line. 

Figures  15  and  16  show  the  casting  mechanism 
in  vertical  section  from  front  to  rear.  When  the 
first  elevator  0  lowers  the  line,  as  just  described, 


FIG.  17. 

the  mould  and  the  pot  M  stand  in  their  rearward 
positions,  as  shown  in  Figure  15. 

The  mould -carrying  wheel  is  sustained  by  a 
horizontal  slide,  and  as  soon  as  the  matrix  line  is 
lowered  to  the  casting  position,  a  cam  at  the  rear 
pushes  the  slide  and  mould  wheel  forward  until  the 
front  face  of  the  mould  is  closed  tightly  against  the 
rear  face  of  the  matrix  line,  as  shown  in  Figure  16. 

While  this  is  taking  place,  the  pot,  having  its 
supporting  legs  mounted  on  a  horizontal  shaft, 
swings  forward  until  its  mouth  is  closed  tightly 
against  the  back  of  the  mould,  as  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 16.  While  the  parts  are  in  this  position,  the 


Alignment  of  the  matrices  421 

justifying  bar  Q  is  driven  up  and  pushes  the  spaces 
or  justifiers  upward  through  the  line  of  matrices 
until  the  line  is  expanded  or  elongated  to  fill  com- 
pletely the  gap  between  jaws  P,  P. 

In  order  to  secure  exact  alignment  of  the  mat- 
rices vertically  and  horizontally,  the  bar  Q  acts 


FIG.  18. 

repeatedly  on  the  spaces,  and  the  line  is  slightly 
unlocked  endwise  and  relocked.  This  is  done  that 
the  matrices  may  be  temporarily  released  to  facili- 
tate the  accurate  adjustment  demanded.  While 
the  justified  line  is  locked  fast  between  the  jaws, 
the  elevator,  and  the  mould,  the  plunger  m2  in  the 
pot  descends  and  drives  the  molten  metal  before  it 
through  the  spout  or  mouth  of  the  pot  into  the 
mould,  which  is  filled  under  pressure,  so  that  a  solid 
slug  is  produced  against  the  matrices.  The  pot 
then  retreats,  and  its  mouth  breaks  away  from  the 


422  Distribution 

back  of  the  slug  in  the  mould,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  the  mould  retreats  to  draw  the  type-characters 
on  the  contained  slug  out  of  the  matrices.  The 
mould  wheel  now  revolves,  carrying  the  rear  edge 
of  the  slug  past  a  stationary  trimming-knife,  not 
shown,  and  around  to  the  position  in  front  of  the 
ejector,  as  previously  described  and  shown  in  Figure 
7,  whereupon  the  ejector  advances  and  drives  the 
slug  between  two  side  trimming-knives  into  the 
galley  at  the  front. 

DISTRIBUTION 

After  the  casting  action  the  first  elevator  0  rises 
and  carries  the  matrix  line  above  the  original  or 
composing  level,  as  shown  in  Figure  17.  The  line 
is  then  drawn  horizontally  to  the  right  until  the 
teeth  of  the  matrices  engage  the  toothed  elevator 
bar  R,  which  swings  upward  with  the  matrices, 
thus  separating  the  matrices  from  the  spaces  or 
justifiers  J,  which  remain  suspended  in  the  frame, 
so  that  they  may  be  pushed  to  the  right,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  arrow,  into  their  magazine. 

When  the  line  of  matrices  is  raised  to  the  dis- 
tributor, it  is  necessary  that  the  matrices  shall  be 
separated  and  presented  one  at  a  time  to  the  dis- 
tributor bar,  between  the  threads  of  the  horizontal 
carrier-screws.  This  is  accomplished  as  shown  in 
Figures  18  and  19.  A  horizontal  pusher  or  line- 
shifter  8  carries  the  line  of  matrices  forward  from 


Ascent  of  the  matrices  423 

the  elevator  bar  R  into  the  so-called  distributor 
box,  containing  at  its  opposite  sides  two  rails  u, 
having  near  their  forward  ends  shoulders  u2,  against 
which  the  forward  matrix  abuts  so  as  to  prevent 
further  advance  of  the  line,  which  is  urged  con- 
stantly forward  by  the  follower  or  line-shifter  8. 
A  vertically  reciprocating  lifting  finger  F  has  its 
upper  end  shouldered  to  engage  beneath  the  fore- 
most matrix,  so  as  to  push  the  same  upward  until 
its  upper  ears  are  lifted  above  the  detaining  shoul- 
ders M2,  so  that  they  may  ride  forward  on  the  up- 

DISTRIBUTOR  FROM  BELOW. 


FIG.  19. 

wardly  inclined  inner  ends  of  the  rails,  as  shown  in 
Figure  18.  The  matrices  thus  lifted  are  engaged 
by  the  screws  and  carried  forward,  and  as  they 
move  forward  they  are  gradually  raised  by  the  rails 
until  the  teeth  finally  engage  themselves  on  the 
distributor  bar  T,  from  which  they  are  suspended 
as  they  are  carried  forward  over  the  mouth  of  the 


424  Trimming -knives 

magazine,  until  they  fall  into  their  respective  chan- 
nels, as  shown  in  Figure  19. 

The  distributor  box  also  contains  on  opposite 
sides  shorter  rails,  w4,  adapted  to  engage  the  lower 
ends  of  the  matrices,  to  hold  them  in  position  as 
they  are  lifted.  The  lifting  finger  V  is  mounted 
on  a  horizontal  pivot  in  one  end  of  an  elbow  lever 
mounted  on  pivot  v*  and  actuated  by  a  cam  on 
the  end  of  one  of  the  carrier-screws,  as  shown  in 
Figures  5,  8,  and  19. 

TRIMMING-KNIVES 

In  practice  there  is  occasionally  found  a  slight 
irregularity  in  the  thickness  of  slugs,  and  thin 
fins  are  sometimes  cast  around  the  forward  edges. 
For  the  purpose  of  reducing  them  to  a  uniform 
thickness,  they  are  driven  on  their  way  to  the  galley 
between  two  vertical  knives,  as  shown  in  Figures 
7  and  23.  The  inner  knife  is  stationary,  but  the 
outer  knife  is  adjustable  in  order  that  it  may  ac- 
commodate slugs  of  different  thicknesses.  This  ad- 
justment is  made  by  the  knife  being  seated  at  its 
outer  edge  against  a  supporting  bar  or  wedge,  hav- 
ing at  opposite  ends  two  inclined  surfaces  seated 
against  supporting  screws  in  the  knife-block.  A 
lever  engages  a  pin  on  the  wedge  for  the  purpose  of 
moving  it  endwise ;  when  moving  in  one  direction, 
it  forces  the  knife  inward  toward  the  stationary 
knife,  and  when  moved  in  the  other  direction  it 


Adjustment  and  treatment  of  knives     425 

forces  it  to  retreat  under  the  influence  of  a  spring 
seated  in  the  block.  The  wedge  is  provided  with  a 
series  of  teeth  engaged  by  a  spring-actuated  pin  or 
dog,  whereby  the  wedge  and  the  knife  are  stopped 
in  proper  positions  to  insure  the  exact  space  re- 
quired between  the  two  knives. 

The  back  knife,  secured  to  the  frame  for  trim- 
ming the  base  of  the  slug  as  it  is  carried  past  by 
the  revolving  wheel,  should  be  kept  moderately 
sharp  and  adjusted  so  as  to  fit  closely  against  the 
back  of  the  passing  mould.  Particular  attention 
should  be  paid  to  this  feature.  The  edge  of  the 
knife  must  bear  uniformly  across  the  face  of  the 
mould. 

The  front  knives,  between  which  the  slug  is 
ejected,  should  not  be  made  too  sharp.  After  being 
sharpened,  the  thin  edge  can  be  advantageously  re- 
moved by  the  use  of  a  thin  oilstone  appli ed  against 
the  side  face ;  that  is,  against  the  face  past  which 
the  slug  is  carried. 

The  stationary  or  left-hand  knife  should  be  so 
adjusted  as  to  align  exactly  with  the  inner  side  of 
the  mould.  Under  proper  conditions  this  knife  does 
not  trim  the  side  face  of  the  slug,  but  acts  only  to  re- 
move any  slight  fins  or  projections  at  the  front  edge. 

The  right-hand  knife,  adjustable  by  means  of  a 
wedge  and  lever,  should  stand  exactly  parallel  with 
the  stationary  knife.  It  trims  the  side  of  the  slug 
on  which  the  ribs  are  formed,  and  it  serves  to  bring 
the  slug  to  the  exact  thickness  required. 


426  Learning  to  operate 


LEARNING   TO    OPERATE 

It  is  of  first  importance  that  the  operator  should 
learn  to  finger  the  keys  with  a  soft  and  speedy 
touch.  The  key  should  be  instantly  released  and 
the  finger  carried  to  the  next  with  a  gliding  move- 
ment. A  violent  or  very  forcible  depression  of  the 
key  is  objectionable  j  it  prevents  high  speed  and 
impairs  the  action  of  the  mechanism.  As  the  keys 
simply  act  to  release  the  power-driven  devices, 
nothing  is  gained  by  a  violent  stroke.  The  very 
speedy  operators  are,  almost  without  exception, 
those  who  finger  the  keys  swiftly  and  at  a  uniform 
rate  of  speed.  Anything  in  the  nature  of  a  spas- 
modic action,  or  of  a  rapid  operation  of  several 
keys  followed  by  a  pause  and  a  repetition  of  the 
first  action,  is  to  be  avoided.  High  speed  is  not  to 
be  expected  in  the  first  few  weeks.  The  operator 
is  advised  to  study  his  board  carefully  and  to  select 
and  finger  the  keys  slowly  and  deliberately,  in  order 
that  he  may  acquire  the  proper  touch  and  the  best 
distribution  of  work  between  the  two  hands.  The 
best  position  at  the  machine  is  to  have  the  centre 
line  of  the  body  nearly  opposite  the  lower-case  m, 
as  most  of  the  work  is  done  at  the  left  end  of  the 
keyboard.  The  first  and  second  fingers  of  both 
hands  are  generally  used,  and  the  thumbs  and 
other  fingers  occasionally.  The  keys  in  the  first 
two  rows  should  be  lingered  mainly  by  the  left 


Management  of  the  machine          427 

hand,  which  should  leave  them  only  when  the  right 
hand  is  reaching  for  distant  capital  letters.  The 
space-bar  can  be  advantageously  operated  by  the 
little  finger.  Where  the  same  letter  is  to  be  used 
twice  in  succession,  a  slight  dwell  on  the  key,  read- 
ily acquired,  will  secure  the  result.  Wherever  suc- 
ceeding letters  are  represented  on  adjacent  keys, 
much  time  is  saved  by  a  gliding  or  wiping  action 
of  the  finger  from  one  key  to  another.  If  the  let- 
ters of  a  word  are  far  apart  on  the  keyboard,  they 
are  to  be  struck  in  quick  succession,  one  with  each 
hand.  The  beginner  should  first  learn  the  location 
of  the  keys,  then  study  the  manner  of  reaching 
them  with  the  least  movement  of  the  hand,  and 
after  this  has  been  accomplished,  and  not  before, 
should  he  attempt  to  increase  his  speed.  In  a  short 
time  he  will  unconsciously  memorize  the  location 
of  all  the  keys,  and  the  action  of  the  hands  will  be 
as  automatic  as  in  writing.1 

MANAGEMENT    OF   THE   MACHINE 

The  first  thing  of  importance  in  the  use  of  the 
machine  is  the  employment  of  a  good  linotype 
metal.  Unless  a  proper  metal  is  employed,  and 
unless,  as  in  stereotyping,  the  metal  is  kept  in 
proper  condition,  it  will  be  impossible  to  secure 
good  results.  The  metal  is  to  be  composed  of  pure 

1  For  additional  remarks  on  this  subject  see  Correct  Keyboard 
Fingering,  on  pages  447-459  of  this  chapter. 


428  Temperature  of  metal 

lead,  tin,  and  antimony,  in  proportions  known  to 
the  experts.  From  repeated  use  the  metal  is  slowly 
oxidized  and  dross  appears.  This  dross  should  be 
skimmed  off  and  removed  at  reasonable  intervals, 
and  when  the  metal  becomes  hard  or  brittle  a  small 
percentage  of  tin  should  be  added  to  increase  its 
fluidity  and  the  sharpness  of  the  type-faces.  Spe- 
cially prepared  alloys  for  doctoring  or  restoring 
the  metal  may  be  obtained  from  nearly  all  dealers 
in  supplies.  When  the  metal  becomes  exceedingly 
foul  or  brittle,  or  is  in  such  condition  that  it  does 
not  melt  and  flow  readily,  it  may  be  purified  by 
melting  it  in  a  suitable  pot  and  immersing  in  the 
molten  metal  a  stick  of  green  wood.  This  should 
be  submerged  in  the  metal  and  permitted  to  remain 
about  twenty  minutes,  or  until  the  boiling  ceases. 
The  remains  of  the  wood  should  be  removed  and 
the  metal  thoroughly  stirred  and  skimmed.  The 
addition  of  a  few  ounces  of  rosin  to  the  molten 
metal  before  the  introduction  of  the  wood  is  recom- 
mended. 

TEMPERATURE    OF   METAL 

It  is  important  that  the  temperature  of  the  metal 
in  the  melting-pot  shall  not  materially  exceed  550° 
Fahrenheit.  The  temperature  can  be  readily  tested 
by  one  of  the  special  iron-clad  thermometers  made 
for  the  purpose,  or  by  thrusting  into  the  pot  a  sheet 
of  paper,  which  at  the  proper  temperature  should 
slowly  assume  a  brown  color  without  burning 


Controlling  the  temperature  429 

or  smoking.  If  the  temperature  is  raised  above 
the  proper  point,  the  metal  is  speedily  impaired, 
the  slugs  are  caused  to  adhere  tightly  in  the  mould, 
so  that  ejection  is  difficult,  the  bodies  of  the  slugs 
are  rendered  porous,  and  the  matrices  are  injured. 

The  temperature  is  controlled  by  regulating  the 
mercurial  governor  at  the  side  of  the  pot.  As  the 
column  of  mercury  expands  with  the  increasing 
heat  of  the  pot,  it  rises  in  the  glass  tube  and  checks 
the  flow  of  gas  to  the  burner.  The  height  of  the 
mercury  is  adjusted  by  means  of  a  small  stem  or 
spindle  in  the  side  of  .the  governor.  When  the 
thermometer  shows  that  the  metal  is  at  the  proper 
temperature,  the  mercury  should  be  at  the  foot  of 
the  small  central  gas-tube.  If  too  high  or  too  low, 
adjust  the  spindle  to  bring  it  to  the  proper  level. 

The  pressure  of  the  gas  received  from  city  mains 
varies  widely  at  different  hours  of  the  day  and 
night.  Each  machine  plant  is  therefore  provided 
with  a  pressure  governor  or  regulator.  These  gov- 
ernors, for  use  on  the  main  supply-pipe,  contain  a 
diaphragm  or  float,  which  may  be  loaded  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent.  The  load  should  be  regu- 
lated so  that  the  governor  will  permit  the  flow  of 
gas  at  moderate  pressure  only. 

TREATMENT    OF   MATRICES 

The  perfection  of  the  type-characters  produced 
depends  wholly  on  the  condition  of  the  matrices, 


430  Treatment  of  matrices 

which  are  made  with  great  precision  and  require 
to  be  intelligently  and  carefully  treated. 

It  is  of  importance  that  the  side  faces  of  the 
matrices  shall  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  foreign 
matter,  in  order  that  they  may  be  locked  tightly 
together  in  the  line,  and  to  prevent  the  molten 
metal  from  flowing  between  them. 

They  should  be  removed  from  the  machine  when 
necessary  and  carefully  rubbed  on  their  side  faces 
on  a  soft  pine  board,  a  sheet  of  canvas,  or  like  ma- 
terial, taking  care  not  to  rub  them  so  hard  as  to 
round  the  corners.  They  should  never  be  washed 
in  benzine  unless  unusually  foul.  The  use  of  a 
very  slight  amount  of  finely  pulverized  graphite  is 
of  advantage,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid 
using  it  in  excessive  quantity.  A  minute  amount 
applied  in  the  magazine  or  on  the  matrices  will  be 
slowly  distributed,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  days 
will  give  burnished  surfaces.  The  continued  use 
of  the  matrices  causes  a  fine  film  or  oxide  to  be 
formed  in  the  characters,  so  that  the  metal  may  be 
cast  freely  and  sharply  into  them  and  the  type- 
characters  easily  withdrawn. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  the  matrices  be 
thrown  loosely  into  boxes  or  tumbled  together. 
The  result  will  be  to  crush  or  break  in  the  very- 
thin  side  walls  of  the  characters,  and  it  is  this 
breaking  down  of  the  walls,  so  that  metal  may  flow 
between  the  matrices,  which  causes  fins  or  hair-lines 
on  the  slugs. 


The  spaces  orjustifiers 


431 


TREATMENT   OF   SPACES   OR   JUSTIFIERS 

As  previously  mentioned,  the  spaces  or  justifiers 
consist  of  a  short  wedge  and  a  longer  wedge  having 
a  sliding  connection  therewith.  The  short  wedges 
are  held  fast  in  the  line,  so  that  they  present  always 
the  same  point  at  the  casting  level.  The  molten 


Showing  how  type- 
metal  on  neglected 
space  destroys  ad- 
jacent matrix. 


FIG.  20. 


type-metal  therefore  tends  to  accumulate  on  the 
side  of  the  short  wedges  or  sleeves  and  to  build  up 
projections,  as  shown  in  Figure  20,  so  that  when 


432  Cleaning  machines 

a  space  is  locked  up  in  a  line  of  matrices,  the  pro- 
jection will  crush  in  the  side  wall  of  the  adjoin- 
ing matrix.  This  metal  should  be  removed  daily. 
It  cannot  be  wiped  off.  It  should  be  carefully 
scaled  or  peeled  off  with  the  edge  of  a  knife-blade 
or  similar  instrument,  taking  care  not  to  scratch 
the  wedge.  After  removing  all  the  metal,  the  side 
face  of  the  wedge  should  be  rubbed  on  the  surface 
of  a  board,  or  like  material,  coated  with  graphite 
or  hard  soap.  Graphite  may  be  sprinkled  on  felt 
firmly  tacked  to  a  board.  The  spaces  or  justi- 
fiers  must  not  under  any  circumstances  be  rubbed 
on  emery-cloth,  filed,  or  treated  in  any  other  man- 
ner which  will  remove  the  corners  or  round  the  faces. 
They  must  be  left  flat  and  true,  as  originally  made. 

CLEANING    MACHINES 

Cleanliness  is  the  one  thing  which,  more  than  all 
others,  will  contribute  to  the  speed  and  endurance 
of  the  machine  and  the  excellence  of  its  product. 
Every  running  or  wearing  part  of  the  machine 
should  have  its  surfaces  carefully  wiped  clean  at 
short  intervals,  and  all  surfaces  excepting  those 
with  which  matrices  contact  should  be  moderately 
oiled.  Under  no  circumstances  should  oil  be  ap- 
plied within  the  magazine  or  to  any  of  the  surfaces 
against  which  the  matrices  travel. 

The  attendant  should  go  carefully  over  his  ma- 
chine at  short  intervals,  see  that  all  oil-holes  are 


Oiling  the  parts  433 

clear,  and  supply  them  to  a  reasonable  extent  with 
lubricating  oil  of  good  quality. 

Special  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  pivots 
of  the  rolls  which  travel  on  the  large  cams  at  the 
rear  of  the  machine  are  oiled,  so  that  the  rolls  will 
turn  freely.  Watch  particularly  the  roll  behind 
the  melting-pot,  which,  becoming  heated,  is  more 
liable  than  others  to  become  fast  on  its  pivot.  The 
small  brass  cams  of  the  keyboard  above  the  rubber 
rolls  should  be  watched .  From  time  to  tim e  the  dust 
and  dirt  should  be  brushed  out  of  the  keyboard, 
and  a  very  small  amount  of  watch-oil  applied  with 
a  broom  straw,  or  like  means,  to  the  cam-pivots. 
The  journals  of  the  distributor  screws  should  also 
be  watched  and  lubricated  from  time  to  time,  but 
particular  care  must  be  observed  at  this  point  to 
limit  the  amount  of  oil  so  that  it  will  not  flow  out 
on  to  the  adjoining  parts  and  reach  the  matrices 
or  get  into  the  magazine. 

THE  MELTING-POT 

The  melting-pot  of  the  machine  should  be  kept 
free  from  dross.  A  hard  oxide  of  lead  and  anti- 
mony will  sometimes  form  in  the  throat  of  the  pot 
and  obstruct  the  discharge  of  the  metal.  It  is  very 
important  that  the  operator  should  at  reasonable 
intervals  remove  the  mouthpiece  and  see  that  the 
throat  is  clear.  The  mouthpiece  of  the  pot  should 
always  close  tightly  against  the  back  of  the  mould. 

28 


434  The  melting-pot 

The  two  surfaces  should  be  watched  carefully,  and 
any  metal  or  other  foreign  matter  removed,  taking 
care  not  to  use  emery-paper  or  any  other  material 
or  instrument  which  will  scratch  the  surface  of 
the  mould. 

Occasionally  the  mouth  of  the  pot  will  become 
slightly  warped,  so  that  there  will  be  leakage  of 
metal  between  the  mould  and  the  pot  mouth.  In 
such  case  the  back  of  the  mould  should  be  inked  and 
the  mouthpiece  closed  against  it.  The  ink  will  be 
transferred  to  the  high  points  on  the  mouthpiece, 
which  must  be  carefully  dressed  down  with  a  fine 
file  until  it  is  perfectly  flat,  so  that  there  will  be 
contact  over  its  whole  surface  with  the  mould.  Take 
off.  but  little  at  a  time,  and  keep  the  face  of  the  file 
square  with  the  mouthpiece. 

The  holes  in  the  pot  mouth  should  be  exposed 
fully  to  the  mould  cell  and  show  full  and  round 
on  the  bottom  of  the  slug.  The  adjusting  screws  in 
the  lower  ends  of  the  pot  legs  are  for  the  purpose 
of  raising,  lowering,  and  tipping  the  pot,  so  that  the 
holes  may  be  brought  into  proper  relation  with  the 
mould.  Attention  should  be  paid  to  the  spring  at 
the  back  of  the  pot,  through  which  it  is  pressed 
forward  against  the  mould.  The  spring  should 
have  such  tension  as  to  carry  the  pot  tightly  against 
the  mould,  but  excessive  pressure  should  be  avoided 
because  of  the  needless  wear  on  the  parts  and  the 
increased  power  that  would  be  required  to  drive  the 
machine. 


Treatment  of  the  mould  435 


THE   MOULD 

The  mould  should  be  kept  scrupulously,  clean  on 
both  the  front  and  rear  faces  and  in  the  interior. 
It  should  be  secured  tightly  to  the  carrying  disk  or 
wheel.  If  at  any  time  it  presents  any  roughness, 
it  should  be  very  carefully  and  skilfully  burnished. 
Neither  files  nor  emery-paper  should  be  used.  If 
the  corners  or  surfaces  are  rounded  in  the  slightest, 
there  will  be  leakage  of  metal  and  imperfect  slugs. 

The  mould  should  be  taken  apart  occasionally, 
and  the  mould  cell  cleaned  and  polished,  and  the 
trimming-knives  set  properly.  This  will  permit 
the  slugs  to  be  ejected  easily. 

The  ejector  blade  is  guided  on  one  side  by  the 
slide  which  carries  the  mould  wheel,  and  on  the  op- 
posite side  by  a  cushioned  ejector  support  to  guide 
the  blades  of  different  thicknesses  and  keep  them 
straight  and  in  line  with  the  mould.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  the  ejector  is  always  accurately 
and  closely  guided,  so  that  it  will  be  certain  to 
enter  the  mould  without  striking  the  corner  of  the 
latter.  Carelessness  in  this  respect  will  lead  to 
fatal  injury  to  the  mould,  the  corners  of  which 
must  remain  absolutely  sharp  and  square. 

THE  MOULD  DISK 

The  disk  in  which  the  mould  is  carried  should  be 
carefully  watched  to  see  that  it  runs  true,  and  the 


436         Correct  position  of  mould  disk 

slide  in  which  it  is  carried  should  have  its  wearing 
surfaces  occasionally  oiled.  The  guides  in  which  the 
slide  moves  should  be  watched.  They  will  some- 
times wear  and  allow  the  mould  wheel  and  mould  to 
fall  below  the  proper  level.  Adjustment  screws  are 
provided  for  raising  the  guides  when  this  occurs. 

The  mould  disk  turns  intermittingly,  and  when  in 
the  casting  position  and  in  the  position  for  the  ejec- 
tion of  the  slug,  it  moves  forward  over  stop-pins 
or  studs  on  the  frame.  These  pins  enter  removable 
bushings  in  the  disk,  and  they  should  fit  snugly 
therein,  so  that  there  may  be  no  rotary  motion  of 
the  disk  in  either  direction.  This  is  very  important, 
in  order  that  the  mould  may  align  exactly  with  the 
pot  and  with  the  trimming-knives,  between  which 
the  slug  is  driven.  The  holes  in  the  bushings  be- 
come worn  and  elongated  in  time.  The  operator 
should  examine  them  from  time  to  time,  and  when- 
ever they  are  worn  the  bushings  should  be  un- 
screwed and  new  ones  substituted. 

Occasionally  the  mould  disk  will  fail  to  stop  in 
the  proper  position.  This  is  due  to  the  wearing 
away  of  the  square  hub  on  the  rear  end  of  the  mould- 
turning  shaft.  This  square  hub  bears  against  the 
side  face  of  the  adjoining  cam.  The  cam  contains, 
at  the  point  of  bearing,  a  hardened  steel  plate, 
which  may  be  adjusted  inward  and  outward,  to 
compensate  for  the  wear  of  the  hub.  If  the  hub  is 
seriously  worn  it  should  be  removed  and  replaced 
by  another. 


The  assembling  elevator  437 


THE  ASSEMBLING  ELEVATOR 

The  assembling  elevator,  in  which  the  matrices 
are  composed,  will  sometimes  wear  at  the  point 
where  the  matrices  and  spaces  enter  and  strike.  In 
the  modern  machines  there  are  removable  plates  at 
this  point.  When  worn,  they  should  be  replaced  by 
others.  If  the  assembler  is  of  the  solid  type,  without 
removable  plates,  a  new  elevator  may  be  necessary. 
The  pawls  or  dogs  at  the  entrance  to  the  elevator 
should  be  examined  from  time  to  time  to  see  that 
they  engage  the  edges  of  the  incoming  matrices,  so 
as  to  prevent  them  from  falling  to  the  right. 

Transposition  of  matrices  in  the  line  will  some- 
times occur.  This  is  usually  due  to  the  failure  of  the 
small  spring  g3  (Figure  11)  which  projects  through 
the  assembler  throat  from  the  back,  immediately 
above  the  star-wheel.  This  spring  should  project 
forward  sufficiently  to  catch  each  matrix  as  it  passes 
and  hold  it  forward  in  position  to  enter  the  line. 
Above  the  star-wheel,  between  the  passage  for  the 
spaces  or  justifiers  and  the  path  of  the  down-coming 
matrices,  there  is  a  long  pendent  spring.  The  lower 
end  of  this  spring  should  be  in  such  position  that 
there  will  be  just  sufficient  room  beneath  it  for  the 
passage  of  the  thickest  matrix  in  the  font. 

When  the  assembling  elevator  rises,  its  matrix- 
supporting  shoulders  should  align  exactly  with  the 
shoulders  in  the  stationary  line-delivery  channel, 


438  The  first  elevator 

through  which  the  matrix  line  is  transferred  to 
the  left,  to  the  first  elevator.  If  the  parts  do  not 
align,  attention  should  be  given  to  the  adjusting 
screws. 

THE  FIRST  ELEVATOR 

The  first  elevator,  to  which  the  composed  line  is 
transferred,  serves  first  to  lower  the  line  to  the 
mould  or  casting  position,  and  thereafter  to  lift  it 
above  the  original  level,  so  that  the  line  may  be 
transferred  to  the  right  preparatory  to  the  separa- 
tion of  the  spaces  or  justifiers  from  matrices  and  the 
further  elevation  of  the  latter  to  the  distributor  by 
the  second  elevator.  The  jaws  of  the  first  elevator 
should  be  carefully  watched  to  see  that  they  are 
not  mutilated  and  that  they  are  parallel  and  at  such 
distance  apart  as  to  permit  the  free  movement  of 
the  matrices  between  them.  The  pawls  at  the  open 
end  of  these  jaws  should  also  be  carefully  noticed 
to  see  that  they  are  in  operative  position  and  that 
they  retain  the  incoming  matrices  with  certainty. 
It  is  of  vital  importance  that  the  first  elevator  shall 
carry  the  matrix  line  downward  until  the  ears  at 
the  lower  ends  of  the  matrices  are  in  position  to 
permit  the  mould  to  slide  forward  freely  over  them. 
The  descent  of  the  elevator  is  controlled  by  a 
screw  in  its  top  which  bears  upon  the  top  of  the 
vise  frame.  If  the  elevator  is  stopped  at  a  high 
level,  and  through  any  cause  the  vise  automatic  fails 
to  work,  the  sharp  corner  of  the  mould,  advancing 


The  second  elevator  439 

over  the  ears,  will  shave  away  their  upper  edges, 
with  the  result  of  destroying  the  matrices  and  the 
alignment  of  the  type-characters  on  the  slugs. 

When  the  assembling  elevator  rises  to  its  upper 
position,  it  is  very  important  that  it  should  align 
horizontally  with  the  channel  into  which  the  mat- 
rices are  transferred  to  engage  the  second  elevator. 
An  adjusting  screw  at  the  lower  end  of  the  elevator 
slide  serves  to  give  it  the  required  position.  This 
elevator  is  raised  and  lowered  by  the  large  cam  on 
the  outside  of  the  frame,  which  acts  on  a  roller  on 
the  end  of  the  lever.  It  will  be  observed  there  is 
also  an  adjustment  between  the  two  parts  of  this 
lever,  outside  of  the  frame  and  near  the  cam,,  to 
change  the  vertical  movement  of  the  elevator. 

THE  SECOND  ELEVATOE 

The  second  elevator,  to  which  the  line  of  matrices 
is  transferred  from  the  first  elevator,  carries  a 
toothed  or  ribbed  bar  to  engage  and  lift  the  mat- 
rices. This  bar  should  be  watched  to  see  that  its 
teeth  are  not  rough  or  mutilated.  Either  of  these 
defects  will  cause  the  bar  to  wear  or  to  cut  away 
the  teeth  of  the  matrices  and  cause  bad  distribution. 
When  the  second  elevator  lifts  the  matrices  to 
the  top  of  the  machine,  it  comes  to  a  rest  against  a 
solid  support  or  banking-piece.  These  parts  should 
be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  should  be  watched 
to  see  that  the  toothed  bar  carrying  the  matrices 


440  Replacing  the  worn  rails 

comes  into  exact  alignment  with  the  corresponding 
bar  in  the  lift-box  of  the  distributor,  so  that  the 
matrices  may  be  pushed  forward  smoothly  from 
one  bar  to  the  other  and  into  the  box. 

The  slide  which  pushes  the  matrix  line  forward 
from  the  second  elevator  should  move  freely,  and 
its  actuating  spring  should  be  adjusted  so  that  it 
will  force  the  line  horizontally  with  moderate  pres- 
sure. The  forward  matrix  of  the  line  will  bear 
against  the  vertical  shoulders  of  the  rails  in  the 
box,  as  detailed  on  page  423,  and  the  matrix  will 
be  held  in  position  directly  over  the  upper  end  of 
the  vertical  lifting  finger.  This  finger  will  push 
the  matrix  upward,  clear  of  the  shoulders  and  in 
engagement  with  the  feed-screws.  The  matrix  will 
thus  be  carried  along  with  its  shoulders  riding  on 
the  inclined  ends  of  the  rails,  until  it  is  lifted  into 
engagement  with  the  teeth  of  the  distributor  bar, 
along  which  it  will  be  carried.  The  rising  matrices 
will  gradually  wear  away  the  vertical  shoulders  of 
the  stop-rails  in  the  box,  so  that  the  matrices  will 
be  lifted  to  an  improper  position  and  against  the 
threads  of  the  screws,  by  which  they  will  be  bent. 
The  rails  should  therefore  be  carefully  watched, 
and  when  appreciably  worn  they  should  be  replaced 
by  new  rails. 

In  the  later  machines  the  shoulders  of  the  rails 
are  made  in  separate  pieces,  so  that  they  may  be 
removed  and  replaced  by  others  without  renewing 
the  entire  rails. 


Adjustment  of  matrix-lifting  finger    441 

The  distributor  box  may  be  removed  by  releasing 
the  one  large  screw.  When  the  box  is  restored 
to  its  position,  care  should  be  observed  to  force  it 
upward  as  far  as  it  will  go  and  until  it  is  seated 
firmly  in  place.  Failure  to  do  this  will  result  in 
damage  to  matrices. 

The  matrix-lifting  finger  also  requires  attention. 
It  should  be  so  adjusted  that  it  will  in  every  case 
lift  the  matrix  clear  of  the  shoulders  on  the  side 


WHEEL 
> 
RST  ELEVATOR, 


FIG.  21. 


rails,  but  should  not  be  permitted  to  lift  a  ma- 
trix any  farther  than  is  necessary  to  secure  its 
release. 


442  Care  of  magazine  channels 

The  shoulder  of  the  lifting  finger  on  which  the 
matrix  bears  should  be  kept  clean.  If  dirt  is  per- 
mitted to  accumulate  in  the  angle,  the  finger  will 
slip  off  from  the  matrices  and  fail  to  lift  them 
properly. 

In  the  distributor  box  the  bar  overlying  the  line 
of  matrices  is  provided  at  the  inner  or  front  end 
with  a  thin  vertical  blade  to  enter  the  vertical  slot  in 
the  centre  of  the  front  matrix.  The  object  of  this 
blade  is  to  prevent  the  lifting  of  more  than  one  ma- 
trix at  a  time.  It  will  sometimes  wear  away  on  the 
end,  or  become  shortened,  so  as  to  permit  the  lifting 
of  two  thin  matrices.  If  two  matrices  are  lifted 
at  one  time,  it  is  due  either  to  the  wearing  away 
of  this  blade,  or  to  the  wearing  away  of  the  stop- 
shoulders  on  the  rails.  They  should  be  carefully 
examined  to  see  that  the  space  between  them  is  such 
that  only  one  matrix  will  pass  upward.  If  the  blade 
is  too  short,  a  new  one  should  be  inserted  or  new 
rails  substituted. 

The  magazine  channels  should  be  brushed  out 
from  time  to  time  and  kept  scrupulously  clean.  On 
this  depends  the  free  delivery  that  is  needed  for 
securing  speedy  composition. 

The  escapements  at  the  lower  end  of  the  maga- 
zine should  work  freely  at  all  times.  Each  pawl 
should  sink  until  its  upper  end  is  exactly  flush  with 
the  bottom  of  the  groove  or  channel  in  which  the 
matrix  ears  slide.  At  reasonable  intervals  the 
escapements  should  be  thoroughly  brushed  out. 


Cleaning  channels  of  face-plate        443 

An  exceedingly  slight  amount  of  fine  graphite  may 
be  applied  to  the  escapement  levers  to  ease  their 
action.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  apply 
an  excessive  amount.  Time  must  be  relied  upon 
to  secure  its  proper  distribution. 

The  channels  of  the  face-plate  in  front  of  the 
magazine  should  be  kept  clean,  and  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  upper  ends  of  the 


OLD  WHEEL 

RRST  ELEVATOR 


FIG.  22. 

partitions  do  not  overlap  the  ends  of  the  matrices 
or  the  matrix  channels,  so  as  to  obstruct  the  out- 
coming  matrices. 

In  the  older  machines  the  lower  end  of  the  maga- 
zine is  adjustable  vertically  and  also  laterally.  If 
there  is  any  failure  to  deliver  matrices,  the  escape- 
ments should  be  carefully  examined  to  see  that  the 
pawls  rise  and  fall  to  the  proper  extent.  If  not, 


444  The  distributor  feed-screws 

the  action  can  sometimes  be  corrected  by  slightly 
raising  or  lowering  the  end  of  the  magazine. 

The  distributor  bar  should  be  kept  very  clean 
and  in  a  burnished  or  polished  condition.  A  piece 
of  soft  pine  wood  with  a  little  black-lead  is  an  ex- 
cellent thing  for  this,  as  the  soft  wood  cuts  its  way 
down  to  the  bottom  of  the  teeth  of  the  bar  and 
polishes  it  thoroughly.  If  from  any  cause  the  ends 
of  its  teeth  become  rough,  it  will  speedily  destroy 
the  teeth  of  the  matrices. 

The  channel  entrance  or  magazine  entrance  below 
the  distributor  bar  contains  a  series  of  vertical 
partitions,  by  which  the  matrices  are  guided  down- 
ward into  the  upper  flaring  ends  of  the  grooves 
or  channels  in  the  magazine.  These  partitions  are 
sometimes  bent  to  the  right  or  left,  so  that  the  fall- 
ing matrices  will  strike  upon  them  or  be  deflected 
into  the  wrong  channels.  They  should  therefore 
be  carefully  watched  in  connection  with  the  falling 
matrices  to  see  that  the  latter  enter  freely  between 
the  partitions. 

The  distributor  feed-screws  should  occupy  proper 
relations  to  each  other  and  to  the  bar.  For  this 
purpose  orie  of  the  gear-wheels  at  the  end  has  one 
of  its  teeth  partly  cut  away  and  the  companion 
gear  is  provided  with  a  stud  to  enter  the  cavity. 
The  back  feed-screw  can  be  raised  by  releasing  the 
spring  latch  on  right-hand  end.  When  replacing, 
after  the  screw  has  been  raised,  care  should  be  ob- 
served to  reset  the  screws  in  the  proper  relation. 


Cautionary  remarks 


445 


CAUTION 

There  are  a  few  important  errors  against  which 
operators  are  particularly  cautioned. 

Access  is  had  to  the  casting  mechanism  by  un- 
locking the  vise  frame  and  swinging  it  forward 
away  from  the  mould.  This  should  never  be  done 
unless  the  mould  wheel  is  first  moved  rearward 
away  from  its  stop-pins. 

The  machine  should  not  be  permitted  to  remain 
at  rest  with  the  pot  against  the  mould.  The  effect 
will  be  to  overheat  the  mould,  soften  it,  and  cause 
it  to  warp  out  of  shape. 

Spaces  or  justifiers  should  not  be  used  at  the 
extreme  ends  of  a  matrix  line,  nor  should  two  be 
placed  together  in  the  line. 


MOLD  WHEEL 


FIG.  23. 


Under  no  circumstances  should  the  magazine  be 
pounded  or  subjected  to  harsh  or  violent  treatment. 


446  Cautionary  remarks 

The  matrix  line  should  never  be  set  to  such 
length  that  it  will  fail  to  descend  between  the  vise 
jaws  easily.  Under  110  circumstances  should  the 
first  elevator  be  forced  downward  to  carry  a  matrix 
line  between  the  jaws.  This  action  will  cause  dis- 
placement of  the  matrices,  the  bending  of  the  jaws, 
and  other  serious  evils  which  cannot  be  corrected 
except  by  a  skilled  mechanic. 

The  metal-pot  should  not  be  filled  higher  than 
half  an  inch  from  the  top.  The  metal  should  never 
be  permitted  to  run  to  a  low  level  in  the  pot.  Good 
results  can  be  obtained  only  by  filling  the  pot  at 
short  intervals,  so  as  to  maintain  a  substantially 
uniform  level  of  the  metal  therein. 

If  the  machine  fails  to  run  easily,  it  is  because 
the  parts  are  not  clean  and  because  they  need  oiling. 

The  tightening  up  of  the  main  clutch,  so  as  to 
drive  the  machine  forcibly,  is  attended  with  many 
dangers. 

No  part  of  the  machine  should  be  filed  or  other- 
wise altered  in  shape. 

If  the  parts  fail  to  move  easily,  or  fail  to  perform 
their  functions,  it  is  either  because  they  are  not 
clean,  or  because  they  are  in  need  of  adjustment. 


Correct  keyboard  fingering  447 


CORRECT    KEYBOARD    FINGERING 

That  the  average  speed  of  operators  of  the  Lino- 
type is  steadily  increasing  is  undeniable.  There 
are  to-day  divers  ten-thousand-an-hour  men.  An 
operator  nowadays  is  not  designated  as  "swift" 
unless  he  can  strike  a  seven-  or  eight-thousand-an- 
hour  gait.  What  is  it  that  is  responsible  for  this 
noticeable  increase  in  the  operator's  output  in  re- 
cent years  ?  The  machine  itself  has  not  undergone 
any  material  change.  Indeed,  ten  thousand  ems  an 
hour  has  been  averaged  on  the  old-style  square- 
base  machine.  It  is  not  accountable  on  the  as- 
sumption that  the  operators  are  becoming  more 
proficient  with  practice.  Many  of  the  oldest  opera- 
tors are  setting  no  more  than  they  did  in  the  first 
year  or  two  on  the  machine.  Some  swift  composi- 
tors failed  to  become  fast  operators,  while  many 
type-setters  of  mediocre  ability  at  the  case  have 
developed  into  swifts  on  the  keyboard.  It  has  been 
witnessed  time  and  again  that  a  slow  operator  will 
suddenly  blossom  into  a  full-fledged  swift,  and  the 
reason  therefor  is  not  apparent.  What  is  the  key 
to  this  mystery  ? 

It  is  explainable  only  on  the  theory  that  these 
swifts  have  discovered  some  truths  about  operating 
the  keyboard  not  universally  known.  They  have 
devoted  themselves  to  a  painstaking  study  of  the 
keyboard  and  its  proper  manipulation,  and  the 


448  Correct  keyboard  fingering 

results  are  apparent  in  the  records  being  hung  up. 
What  these  few  have  done  the  many  can  do.  It 
lies  with  themselves  to  make  the  effort.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  set  fifteen  thousand  ems  an  hour  on  the 
Linotype,  and  no  operator  should  be  content  until 
he  reaches  the  limit  of  his  machine's  capacity. 

The  first  thought  to  occur  to  a  student  of  this 
question  is  that  to  set  type  at  such  high  rates  of 
speed  requires  incessant  reading  of  the  copy.  The 
keyboard  must  of  necessity  be  operated  without 
looking  at  it.  Certainly  one  cannot  be  shifting 
the  eyes  to  the  keyboard  and  back  to  the  copy  with- 
out danger  of  losing  one's  place.  Therefore  it  is 
apparent  that,  in  order  to  avoid  the  necessity  of 
looking  at  the  keyboard,  the  location  of  the  keys 
must  be  so  fixed  in  the  operator's  mind  that  the 
fingers  seek  them  mechanically,  and  the  eyes  be 
devoted  to  the  continuous  reading  of  the  copy.  If 
this  is  so,  it  no  longer  is  necessary  to  read  ahead  of 
what  one  is  setting,  as  was  customary  with  the 
hand-compositor.  To  stop  operating  while  memo- 
rizing a  sentence  is  fatal  to  the  acquirement  of 
speed,  which  demands  that  the  fingers  be  kept 
moving  incessantly.  The  fingers  travel  over  the 
keys  as  the  eyes  travel  over  the  lines  of  the  copy, 
the  sense  of  what  is  being  composed  being  kept  by 
glancing  ahead  while  sending  up  the  line  of  mat- 
rices. Of  course  speed  cannot  be  attained  on 
illegible  manuscript  or  unprepared  copy  of  any 
description,  but  if  no  time  is  lost  in  fingering  the 


Correct  keyboard  fingering  449 

keys  when  the  sailing  is  fair,  the  operator  has  time 
to  decipher  the  cryptography  of  the  scribbler  while 
the  elevator  is  "hung  up."  This  is  an  important 
advantage  fast  operators  have  in  keeping  ahead  of 
the  machine.  They  actually  lose  no  time  when  it 
is  necessary  to  hand-space  a  line,  make  a  correction, 
or  study  their  copy,  and  their  proofs  are  therefore 
cleaner  by  reason  of  their  swiftness. 

All  good  printers,  perhaps,  are  not  swifts,  but 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  all  swifts  are  good  printers. 
It  is  only  errorless  type  which  is  printable,  and 
as  a  single  error  in  a  line  renders  the  whole  line 
worthless  it  is  important  that  few  errors  be  made. 
Speed  in  operating  may  be  acquired  by  any  inde- 
fatigable student.  The  proof-reader,  however,  must 
"be  reckoned  with.  Accuracy  should  be  esteemed 
above  mere  speed.  Speed  will  come  with  practice ; 
accuracy  only  with  painstaking  endeavor. 

There  are  some  general  rules  which  may  be  laid 
down  as  essential  to  the  acquirement  of  speed  in 
operating  the  keyboard  of  the  Linotype.  If  the 
keys  are  to  be  operated  without  looking  at  the 
board,  the  hands  must  assume  some  fixed  relation 
to  the  keys  in  order  that  the  fingers  may  unhesitat- 
ingly and  unerringly  reach  for  the  letters  without 
the  guidance  of  the  eyes.  Assuming  that  the  loca- 
tion of  the  keys  has  been  so  memorized  that  they 
are  indelibly  impressed  on  the  operator's  mind,  the 
hands  must  be  placed  so  as  to  economize  to  the 
utmost  the  distance  necessary  to  travel  in  order  to 
29 


450  Correct  keyboard  fingering 

reach  any  key.  Seated  at  the  keyboard  so  that  the 
lower-case  side  is  directly  before  the  operator, 
spread  out  both  hands  so  as  to  cover  entirely  the 
lower-case  keys.  This  should  be  the  general  position 
of  the  hands.  This  position  will  place  the  thumbs 
in  control  of  the  lower  banks  of  keys,  and  they 
perform  no  slight  portion  of  the  work  of  operating. 
A  system  of  fingering  which  will  suit  the  long, 
lithe-fingered  chap  will  be  impossible  to  the  stubby- 
fingered  operator,  so  each  must  modify  the  general 
rules  to  suit  his  individual  case.  The  object  of  both 
will  be  to  avoid  wide  jumps  of  the  hands  in  finger- 
ing the  keys.  Move  the  hands  as  little  as  you  may. 
Stretch  the  hands  out  and  spread  the  fingers  over 
the  keyboard.  Use  every  finger  you  can  control- 
all  except  the  little  finger,  at  any  rate.  A  light, 
quick,  but  firm  touch  is  the  most  effective.  Now  as 
to  practice. 

The  best  possible  practice  for  the  one  ambitious 
to  be  a  swift  operator  is  repetition  of  certain  words 
or  phrases.  By  this  method  the  entire  attention 
can  be  concentrated  on  the  finger  motion,  and  when 
the  proper  combination  has  been  determined,  prac- 
tise it  over  and  over  until  it  becomes  mechanical. 
Wherever  such  combinations  as  sh,  ch,  in,  etc., 
occur,  make  them  with  a  single  stroke  of  thumb  or 
finger,  sliding  off  one  key  on  to  the  one  below.  In 
this  manner  practise  on  all  ordinary  prefixes  and 
terminals  and  the  common  words.  There  should 
be  no  set  rule  as  to  which  finger  should  strike  a 


Correct  keyboard  fingering  451 

certain  key  under  all  circumstances.  The  finger 
nearest  to  any  key  should  be  the  one  to  use,  and 
this  will  vary  according  to  the  needs  of  the  follow- 
ing or  the  preceding  words.  In  order  to  establish 
a  system  of  fingering,  however,  and  illustrate  what 
is  meant  by  economy  of  movement,  it  may  be  well 
to  demonstrate  the  fingering  of  certain  words.  The 
accompanying  diagrams  are  therefore  submitted. 

In  these  diagrams  the  letters  on  the  fingers  show 
the  preferred  method  of  fingering  the  word.  Two 
or  more  letters  connected  by  a  ligature  indicate 
that  these  should  be  struck  with  a  wiping  motion 
with  the  one  finger  given.  These  combinations 
should  be  practised  over  and  over,  and  enlarged 
upon  as  proficiency  is  gained.  Where  double  let- 
ters occur,  the  key  is  to  be  held  down  instead  of 
making  two  strokes.  In  doing  this,  keep  the 
rhythmic  beat  of  the  fingers  without  actually  rais- 
ing them  from  the  key. 

Bear  in  mind  that  repetition  of  words  or  sen- 
tences is  of  the  utmost  importance.  To  practise 
the  word  a  half-dozen  times  is  not  sufficient.  Prac- 
tise it  at  first  with  the  eyes  on  the  keys,  and  as  the 
location  of  the  letters  forming  the  word  becomes 
fixed  in  the  mind,  look  away  and  continue  the 
practice.  Keep  wrist  and  fingers  flexible,  and  do 
the  moving  with  the  fingers  instead  of  the  whole 
hand.  Do  not  withdraw  the  hand  or  fingers  after 
striking  a  key,  and  do  not  double  up  fingers  not  at 
the  moment  in  use. 


452  Correct  keyboard  fingering 


calling. 


the — them — then. 


Correct  keyboard  fingering  453 


charming. 


been. 


454  Correct  keyboard  fingering 


unless. 


government. 


Correct  keyboard  fingering  455 


formation. 


punishment. 


456  Correct  keyboard  fingering 


and — man — demand — many. 


which. 


Correct  keyboard  fingering  457 


great. 


would — could — should. 


458  Correct  keyboard  fingering 

The  following  list  of  words  may  be  practised  on 
with  advantage : 


making 

taking 

shaking 

doing 

striking 

choking 

hardly 

truly 

surely 

kindly 

friendly 

much 

such 

rush 

crush 

must 

strike 


each 

retain 

toward 

sustain 

fresh 

maintain 

mind 

relation 

food 

station 

blind 

rarity 

made 

purity 

are 

merrily 

bill 

cheerily 

chill 

merely 

mail 

purely 

meek 

probably 

willing 

thoroughly 

week 

usually 

there 

fully 

thus 

willing 

always 

number 

A  sentence  which  embraces  every  letter  in  the  al- 
phabet will  afford  good  keyboard  practice.  Such 
a  sentence  as  the  following  may  be  used : 

The  sleek  brown  fox  jumped  quickly  over  the  lazy  dog. 

Use  the  en  quad  and  a  space-band  after  the  period 
in  sentences.  The  more  space-bands  in  the  line 
the  less  liability  of  hand-spacing.  Carefully  avoid 
oversetting  the  line ;  it  is  better  to  send  it  in  short 
and  reset,  using  thin  spaces  with  the  space-bands 


Correct  keyboard  fingering  459 

this  time.     The  pump-stop  will  prevent  short  lines 
casting. 

In  quadding  out  lines  use  the  en  quad,  em  quad, 
and  space-band  alternately.  The  more  space-bands 
in  any  line  the  less  full  it  need  be  set.  Operate  the 
space-band  with  second  or  third  finger  of  left  hand. 
Do  not  strike  two  or  more  keys  simultaneously. 
They  almost  certainly  will  clog  or  transpose  before 
reaching  the  assembler.  Speed  the  keyboard  rollers 
to  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  revolutions  per 
minute  and  the  machine  to  any  number  of  lines 
per  minute  up  to  nine,  provided  you  can  "  hang 
her  up  "  at  the  speed,  follow  the  system  of  fingering 
here  expounded,  and  the  proof-reader's  pencil  is  the 
only  thing  that  can  stand  in  the  way  of  any  opera- 
tor becoming  a  swift. 


INDEX 


HORACE    GREELEY 


INDEX 


Abbreviations,  in  algebra,  combin- 
ing of,  172 ;  should  be  in  roman 
and  have  no  period,  185 

Accents,  when  required,  often  at 
inconvenient  distance,  5 ;  weight 
of,  in  font,  16 ;  copy  calling  for, 
22 ;  proper  placing  of,  29 ;  aid  to 
correct  distribution  of,  95;  in 
Century  Dictionary,  232;  in  for- 
eign languages,  233  (see  also  note) ; 
Greek,  236 

Advertisements,  paging  of,  146 

Algebra,  tray  cases  serviceable  for 
signs  of,  31 ;  braces  used  in,  55 ; 
composition  of  books  of,  97 ;  a  dif- 
ficult form  of  composition,  171 ; 
signs  used  in,  172  ;  on  the  compo- 
sition of,  172-188 

America,  case  in  two  parts  favored 
in,  14  (note) ;  machine  patents 
granted  in,  397.  See  also  United 
States 

Antique,  for  running  titles,  262  ;  for 
cut-in  notes,  280 ;  for  legend  lines, 
281 

Appendix,  verbose  extracts  in,  138 ; 
paging  of,  146 ;  setting  of,  147 

Arabic,  one  or  more  fonts  of,  232 
(note) 

Authors,  proofs  withheld  by,  3 
(note) ;  type  kept  standing  by  de- 
lays of,  4 ;  nicer  attention  to  ac- 
cents insisted  on  by  modern,  30; 
agreements  on  style  with,  76 ; 
paragraphing  of  copy  by,  78 ;  al- 
terations by,  84,  85,  325;  capri- 
cious taste  of  publishers  and,  96  ; 
real  sponsors  of  books,  108 ;  type- 


work  in  subordination  to  intent 
of,  168  ;  running  titles  usually  de- 
termined by,  261;  how  make-up 
may  be  helped  by,  276,  277 ;  posi- 
tion of  illustrations  usually  de- 
cided by,  284 

Baskerville,  John,  239 

Bastard  title,  definition  of,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  half-title,  130 
(note) 

Bearers.     See  Guards 

Benzine,  84  (see  also  note),  94,  321, 
322 

Bible,  brief  chapters  of,  135 ;  versi- 
fication of,  136 ;  close  succession 
of  chapters  in,  268 

Bidpai  Literature,  Pedigree  of,  226, 
227,  228  (see  also  note) 

Binding.    See  Book-binding 

Blacklead,  in  electro  typing,  53 

Black-letter,  use  of,  in  title-pages, 
112  (note),  126  (note);  not  suitable 
for  chapter  headings,  132 ;  run- 
ning titles  in,  142,  262 ;  spurs  and 
angles  of,  253 ;  Flemish,  253  ;  com- 
position of,  282  (note  2) 

Blades,  William,  a  most  diligent 
searcher,  145  (note) 

Blocks,  patent,  55 

Bodkins,  description  and  use  of,  45, 
323  (see  also  note) 

Bodoni,  Giambattista,  safe  leader- 
ship of,  110 

Bohemian,  accents  used  in,  233 

Book-binding,  adjustment  of  mar- 
gins suitable  for,  297-306,  332 
(note) ;  most  approved  method  of 


464 


Index 


sewing  in,  333,  334;  defects  of 
side-stitching  in,  334  (note)  ;  neat, 
376;  unworkmanlike,  378  (note) ; 
mean,  396 

Book-chases.     See  Chases 

Book-houses,  sorts  needed  in,  2 ; 
supply  of  printing-material  need- 
ed in  fully  equipped,  3,  4 ;  petty 
fonts  of  display  types  seldom 
needed  in,  29 ;  large  types  and 
borders  often  required  in,  32 ; 
petty  cabinets  not  desirable  for, 
35;  weight  of  leads  required  in, 
60 ;  making  up  in,  67  ;  time-hands 
and  piece-hands  in,  75 ;  stone- 
work in  American,  80 ;  characters 
seldom  found  in  ordinary,  232 

Books,  types  needed  for  composi- 
tion of,  1,  2 ;  printed  from  type, 
73  ;  from  electrotype  plates,  73 ; 
methods  followed  in  production 
of,  76  et  seq.;  title-pages  of,  111  et 
seq.;  dedication,  127,  128 ;  table  of 
contents,  128,  129;  table  of  illus- 
trations, 129,  130 ;  parts  and  half- 
titles,  130,  131 ;  chapter  headings, 
131,  132;  chapter  synopsis,  132, 
133;  preface  and  introduction, 
133,  134;  without  running  title, 
144,  145;  Kelmscott,  159;  one 
method  of  decorating,  161;  deco- 
rations for,  should  be  made  by 
qualified  artist,  163  (note) ;  typog- 
raphy of,  should  agree  with  sub- 
ject-matter, 167,  168;  odd  and 
plain  types  in,  168 ;  with  decora- 
tion, 168;  ephemeral,  169  (note) ; 
copying  best  features  of,  170; 
characters  needed  in  mathemati- 
cal, 172  ;  recent,  of  good  work- 
manship, 261;  types  for  running 
titles  of,  262 ;  profusely  annotated 
old,  280;  sumptuous,  281;  work- 
manship of  well-printed,  288 ; 
locking  up  and  correcting  made- 
up  pages  of,  289 ;  adjusting  mar- 
gins of,  297-306;  gathering,  fold- 
ing, sewing,  and  trimming  sections 
of,  332-337,  340  (see  also  note  2), 
342,  362,  365,  366,  368,  375,  376, 
388,  389;  side-stitching  never 
used  for  library,  334  (note) ;  ad- 
vertised descriptions  of,  370 
(note);  schemes  for  sewed,  392, 
396.  See  also  Pamphlets 

Book-work,  fractions,  signs,  and 
reference-marks  in,  18 ;  solid  and 
leaded,  21 ;  faces  of  brass  rule 
most  used  in,  47  ;  brass  braces  sel- 
dom used  in,  55;  leads  for  ordi- 


nary, 57;  lengths  of  furniture 
rarely  required  in,  68 ;  should  re- 
ceive two  readings,  85 ;  spacing 
and  leading  of,  88  et  seq.;  tables 
in  good,  198 ;  miscellaneous,  232  ;  v 
Flemish  black-letter  occasionally 
used  for  display  lines  in,  253  ;  how 
to  insure  accurate  register  on, 
292;  adjusting  margins  in,  297- 
306  ;  tools  needed  by  stoneman 
for  exact,  307 ;  folding  of  sections 
in,  332-337.  See  also  Composition 

Borders,  large,  often  needed  in 
book-houses,  32;  brass  rules  of 
plain  face  now  more  needed  than, 
51 ;  hair-line  rule,  52-55  ;  twisted 
and  fantastic,  108;  broad,  160; 
of  type,  160 ;  thin  strips  of,  165 ; 
overworked  typographic,  165, 167 ; 
now  provided  by  type-founders, 
167 ;  in  the  so-called  Elzevir  and 
in  the  Byzantine  or  Turkish  style, 
167 ;  difficulty  of  locking  up  forms 
containing  brass-rule,  315,  316 

Bottling,  how  to  remedy,  313 

Box-fasteners,  31 

Braces,  freakish  placing  of,  in  type 
cases,  11  ;  sectional  supplanted 
by  solid,  12;  weight  of,  in  font, 
16 ;  cases  with  unequal  compart- 
ments needed  for,  38 ;  brass,  55 ; 
used  in  algebra,  174,  180 ;  French 
method  of  using,  205,  206 ;  in  gene- 
alogies and  pedigrees,  225 

Brackets,  in  algebra,  173,  178,  179, 
180,  185,  186 

Bruce,  David,  Jr.,  255 

Bruce,  George,  171 

Bruce  Type  Foundry,  scheme  formu- 
lated by,  16 

Bunsen  burner,  use  of,  407 

Burr  machine,  398 

Byzantine  style,  167 

Cabinets,  improved  form  of,  9,  10; 

for  cuts,  33 ;  for  job  cases,  35 
Capelli,  Adriano,  234  (note) 
Capitals,  increased  supply  of,  some- 
times needed,  2 ;  arrangement  of, 
in  type  cases,  11 ;  weight  of,  in 
font,  16;  in  steady  request,  18; 
proposed  arrangement  of  lower 
case  with,  19 ;  case  for  lower-case, 
small  capitals,  and,  22 ;  job  cases 
for  lower-case  and,  28,  35 ;  triple 
case  for,  29;  uniformity  in  use  of, 
77 ;  spacing  of,  90,  91 ;  roman,  of 
regular  form,  preferred  for  title- 
pages,  111,  112  ;  for  chapter  head- 
ings, 131,  132 ;  accented,  233  (see 


Index 


465 


also  note);  roman  or  italic,  for 
running  titles,  262.  See  also  Let- 
ters and  Small  capitals 

Capitals,  small.    See  Small  capitals 

Case-racks,  too  much  room  occupied 
by,  36 ;  for  display  type,  36,  37 ; 
should  be  numbered,  37 

Case-rests.  See  Cabinets  and  Stands 

Cases,  stands  for  supporting,  4  et 
seq. ;  for  ordinary  composition,  10 
et  seq.;  in  one  piece,  14  (note); 
surface  of,  14;  accepted  form  of 
lower,  15 ;  readjustment  of  boxes 
of,  17,  18 ;  old-fashioned,  22 ;  for 
lower-case,  capital,  and  small- 
capital  letters,  22 ;  made  for  com- 
position of  Century  Dictionary, 
23-27;  job,  28,  35;  triple,  29; 
tray,  31,  32,  33,  38;  great  defect 
in,  of  old  manufacture,  31;  now 
made  as  strong  as  they  are  light, 
31 ;  combination  of  quarter,  33, 
38 ;  for  quadrats  and  spaces,  34 ; 
for  leads,  34 ;  common  form  of 
quadrat,  35;  for  display  type 
should  be  numbered,  37 ;  for  com- 
position of  Greek,  Hebrew,  and 
music,  38;  for  labor-saving  rule, 
49-52;  disadvantage  of  shaking, 
after  distribution,  101;  for  com- 
position of  algebra,  175,  176 ;  for 
music  composition,  219,  220-223 ; 
for  composition  of  Greek,  237 ;  for 
Hebrew,  245,  246;  for  German, 
250,  251  (see  also  note) 

Catch-lines,  in  title-pages,  114  (see 
also  note) 

Caxton,  William,  old  Flemish  black 
used  by,  253 

Centennial  Exposition,  402 

Century  Dictionary,  special  stand 
made  for  composition  of,  23-27 ; 
accents  used  in,  232 

Chapter  headings,  setting  of,  131 
(see  also  note),  132 ;  on  odd  pages, 
134,  135  (see  also  note) ;  sinkage 
of,  255,  268 

Characters,  insufficient  provision  of, 
2 ;  arrangement  of,  in  type  cases, 
11  et  seq.;  new,  77;  unusual,  95; 
algebraic,  175,  187;  Greek,  He- 
brew, and  German,  232.  See  also 
Capitals,  Letters,  and  Small  cap- 
itals 

Charts,  genealogical,  228,  229 

Chase-bars,  55.    See  also  Cross-bars 

Chase-racks,  67,  290,  330 

Chases,  2 ;  forms  of  type  in,  63 ;  fit- 
ting of,  with  furniture,  78,  310; 
for  electrotyping,  81,  318,  330,  343, 

30 


344 ;  pages  imposed  in,  83 ;  racks 
for,  289,  330 ;  cast-iron  and 
wrought-iron,  290,  291,  343,  344, 
345  (note);  twin,  292;  shifting- 
bar  or  book-,  292-294;  screw, 
294;  long  and  narrow,  or  head- 
ing-, 294;  selection  of,  306,  307, 
316,  317,  343 ;  exact  register  im- 
possible  with  unsquared,  307  (see 
also  note) ;  how  to  prevent  bowing 
of,  308,  309;  how  they  may  be 
strained  or  cracked,  314 ;  gripper- 
edge  of,  327 ;  care  of,  345  (note). 
See  also  Cross-bars  and  Imposition 

Circulars,  publishers',  32 

Citations.  See  Extracts  and  Quota- 
tions 

Code,  on  style,  99 

Composing-machines.  See  the  vari- 
ous qualifying  names 

Composing-room,  type  cases  most 
noticeable  objects  in,  4;  impor- 
tance of  keeping  materials  accessi- 
ble and  in  good  order  in,  5  ;  how 
to  secure  orderly  arrangement  of, 
35,  36 ;  planning  a,  57 ;  use  of  im- 
posing-stone in,  289 

Composing-rule,  description  and 
use  of,  46,  100,  259,  323 

Composing-stick,  description  of,  44 
(see  also  note) ;  different  styles  of, 
44,  45  (see  also  note);  correct 
manner  of  holding,  98;  proper 
method  of  emptying,  101,  102; 
adjustment  of,  to  measure,  102, 
103;  for  algebraic  formulas,  182 
(see  also  note),  187;  should  not 
be  laid  on  face  of  form,  324 

Composition,  types  needed  for  dif- 
ferent kinds  of,  1,  2 ;  when  it  can 
be  economically  done,  3  (see  also 
note),  4;  cases  for  ordinary,  10  et 
seq.;  open,  21 ;  of  Greek,  Hebrew, 
and  musio,  38 ;  waved,  triple,  and 
ornamental  rules  not  used  in 
plain,  47 ;  needless  delay  and 
trouble  in,  54 ;  made  spongy  by 
treble-leading,  62,  92,  262;  by 
time-hands  and  piece-hands,  75; 
routine  of  plain,  75  et  seq.;  com- 
mon fault  of  novice  at,  86 ;  solid 
and  thin-leaded,  88 ;  projecting 
kerns  in  electrotype,  90 ;  adjust- 
ment of  blanks  or  white  lines  in, 
91,  92;  influence  of  type-setting 
machines  on,  96,  97 ;  aids  to,  100; 
of  title-pages.  111  et  seq.;  dedica- 
tion, 127,  128 ;  table  of  contents, 
128,  129;  table  of  illustrations, 
129, 130 ;  parts  and  half-titles,  130, 


466 


Index 


131 ;  chapter  headings,  131,  132 ; 
chapter  synopsis,  132, 133 ;  preface 
and  introduction,  133,  134 ;  ap- 
pendix, 147;  index,  147,  148;  po- 
etry, 148-151;  algebra,  171-188; 
tables  and  table-work,  188-207; 
music,  207-225;  genealogies  and 
pedigrees,  225-230 ;  older  forms  of 
troublesome,  230 ;  Greek,  234-240  ; 
Hebrew,  241-247;  German,  247- 
254 ;  computation  of  space  occu- 
pied by,  257,  258 ;  rnaker-up  re- 
sponsible for  justification  of,  258  ; 
made  square  and  solid  in  making 
up,  259,  260 ;  how  to  amend  fault 
in  some  kinds  of,  275 ;  cuts  or  nar- 
row tables  in,  282;  locking  up, 
306-320;  mechanical  substitutes 
for  hand,  397  et  seq.  See  also 
Type-setting 

Compositors,  material  must  exceed 
daily  needs  of,  3  (see  also  note),  4 ; 
working  with  insufficient  light,  5 ; 


stands  for  supporting  type  ca 
of,  5  et  seq.;  hand-travel  of,  14, 
15;  grouping  of  space  boxes  ap- 
proved by,  27  ;  helps  to  new,  29, 
30,  37,  38;  type-setting  on  piece 
by,  75  et  seq.;  effect  of  type-set- 
ting machines  on  employment  of, 
96,  97 ;  reading  of  sticks  by,  103, 
104,  324 ;  on  setting  of  title-pages 
by,  112  et  seq. ;  skill  required  by, 
for  algebra,  171,  172 ;  former  diffi- 
culties of,  on  table-work,  188; 
music,  207,  208,  219,  224  ;  casting 
off  of  music  by,  216-218 ;  on  for- 
eign languages,  231,  232, 233 ;  pen- 
cilled Greek  extracts  bewildering 
to  modern,  234;  study  of  Greek 
alphabet  of  service  to,  236;  He- 
brew cases  used  by  American,  245, 
246 ;  on  German,  254 ;  correction 
of  proofs  by,  323-325  ;  distribution 
of  unusual  sorts  by,  329.  See  also 
Job-printers  and  Printers 
Contents,  setting  of  table  of,  128, 129 
Contractions.  See  Abbreviations 
Coptic,one  ormore  fonts  of,  232  (note) 
Copy,  irregular  or  insufficient  sup- 
ply of,  3  (note)  ;  safe-keeping  of, 
when  out  of  use,  10;  minor  or 
extra  sorts  rarely  called  for  by 
ordinary,  12 ;  requiring  roman 
and  italic,  accents  and  display  let- 
ter, 22 ;  preliminary  examination 
of,  76,  77 ;  short  and  long  "  takes  " 
of,  77  ;  methods  of  handling,  77  et 
seq.;  for  title-pages,  112, 118,  121 ; 
paragraphs  and  sections  in,  137  ; 


for  algebra,  187 ;  rcomposing  a  ta- 
ble from  manuscipt,  194  et  seq.; 
music,  217 ;  for  genealogical 
charts,  229 ;  in  foreign  languages, 
231;  in  German,  254.  See  also 
Manuscript 

Counting-room,  needs  of,  79 

Cox  machine,  400 

Cross-bars,  63,  291-294,  303,  307,  308, 
314,  315,  339,  340  (ncte  I),  344,  345 
(note),  347,  353,  363,  364,  369,  373, 
375,  376,  378,  382,  385,  395.  See 
also  Chase-bars  and  Chases 

Cut-in  notes.    See  Notes 

Cuts,  half-tone,  32,  33 ;  cabinet  case 
for,  33  ;  how  to  keep,  in  printing- 
office,  33  (note).  See  also  En- 
gravings, Illustrations,  and  Pho- 
to-engravings 

Cutting-machine,  use  of,  388 

Cylinder-presses,  use  of  patent 
quoins  on,  297 ;  how  to  place 
forms  on,  326,  327 ;  place  of  points 
for,  363  (note) 

Danish,  marked  vowels  of,  30,  233 
Dashes,  freakish  placing  of,  in  type 
cases,  11 ;  weight  of,  in  font,  16 ; 
cases  with  unequal  compartments 
needed  for,  38;  single,  parallel, 
and  double,  55;  ornamental,  55; 
use  of  thin  space  on  each  side  of, 
89 ;  spacing  of,  between  short 
articles  or  paragraphs,  91,  92,  288  ; 
in  title-pages,  125 
Dates,  in  title-pages,  123,  124 
Decoration,  judicious  and  injudi- 
cious, 108,  109,  125 ;  attempts  at, 
by  early  printers,  159 ;  should  be 
designed  by  qualified  artist,  163 
(note);  on  a  large  scale,  164  (note); 
old-time  typographic,  167 ;  books 
with,  168;  bad  lessons  in,  169 
(note);  hackneyed,  170.  See  also 
Ornamentation 

Dedication,  setting  of,  127,  128 
Designers,  pen  drawings  of  amateur, 

169  (note) 

Devices,  labor-saving,  2 
De  Vinne,  Theodore  Low,  dictionary 
stand  and  cases  designed  by,  23-27 
Diacritical  marks.    See  Accents 
Dickinson,  Samuel  Nelson,  231 
Dictionaries,  special  stand  and  cases 
designed  for,  23-27 ;  side-headings 
of,  137 ;  accents  in,  232 
Dictionary,  Century.    See  Century 

Dictionary 

Dictionary  of  the  Art  of  Printing, 
234  (note) 


Index 


467 


Didot,  Ambroise  Firmin-,  safe 
leadership  of,  110;  genealogical 
chart  in  work  by,  228  (note) 

Display,  sizes  of  type  useful  for,  2 ; 
letters  needed  for,  often  at  incon- 
venient distance,  5 ;  copy  calling 
for,  22;  in  title-pages,  115  et  seq.; 
bold,  167.  See  also  Job-work 

Distribution,  hand-travel  in,  15; 
aids  to  cleaner,  21;  safeguards 
against  reckless,  29,  30,  37,  38; 
correct  method  of,  93-95;  set 
hours  for,  100;  disadvantage  of 
shaking  cases  after,  101 ;  standing 
galley  reserved  for,  327  ;  of  leads, 
quadrats,  and  unusual  sorts,  328, 
329 ;  process  of,  in  Mergenthaler 
machine,  422-424 

Dovetails,  63 

Drugulin,  W.,  polyglot  printing- 
house  of,  232  (note) 

Dummies,  use  of,  in  printing,  346, 


Electrotype  guards.    See  Guards 

Electrotypers,  furniture  preferred 
by,  63,  73 ;  hair-line  rules  objec- 
tionable to,  143  (note);  experi- 
ences of,  with  forms,  307  (note); 
guards  provided  by,  318-320.  See 
also  Finishers 

Electrotypes.    See  Plates 

Electrotyping,  rules  unsuitable  for, 
53,  54 ;  hair-line  rules  for,  should 
have  blunt  angles  and  high  shoul- 
ders, 53  ;  chases  for,  291,  343,  344 ; 
use  of  guards  in,  318-320 ;  prepar- 
ing forms  for,  366,  367,  387 

Elzevir  style,  so-called,  167 

Empire  machine,  401 

England,  case  of  two  parts  favored 
in,  14  (note);  use  of  medieval  in- 
itial letters  in,  153;  music  pub- 
lished in,  208 

English,  absence  of  accented  letters 
in  ordinary,  232 

Engravings,  wood-,  140.  See  also 
Cuts,  Illustrations,  and  Photo-en- 
gravings 

Essai  sur  la  Typographic,  228  (note) 

Estienne,  Pierre,  228  (note) 

Estienne  family,  genealogical  chart 
of,  228  (note) 

Europe,  printers  of  northern,  14 
(note);  machine  patents  granted 
in,  397 

Extracts,  types  for,  77 ;  spacing  of, 
in  text,  91,  92,  255,  268,  287 ;  lead- 
ing of,  137  ;  short,  iu  text,  137 ; 
approved  practice  of  setting,  138 ; 


new  method  of  indicating,  138; 
verbose,  in  appendix,  138 ;  within 
rules  of  hair-line  face,  138 ;  begun 
with  plain  two-line  letter,  138; 
driving  out  or  getting  in,  when 
making  up,  287.  See  also  Quota- 
tions 

Facs,  French  and  English  eigh- 
teenth-century, 165 

Figures,  increased  supply  of,  some- 
times needed,  2  ;  arrangement  of, 
in  type  cases,  11,  12;  reference- 
marks  supplanted  by  superior, 
12 ;  weight  of,  in  font,  16 ;  tray 
cases  for,  32 ;  cases  with  unequal 
compartments  needed  for,  38 ; 
spacing  of  tables  of,  in  text,  91, 
92 ;  complex  tables  of,  97 ;  in 
display  lines,  123,  124 ;  old-style, 
123,  136,  145 ;  paging,  144-146, 149, 
150,  261,  262 ;  in  algebra,  172,  173, 
176,  177,  178;  superior  and  infe- 
rior, 174, 176, 179, 185 ;  index,  184 ; 
in  tables,  191,  195  et  seq.;  use  of 
arabic,  in  German,  252.  See  also 
Numerals 

Fingering,  correct  keyboard,  447  et 
seq. 

Finishers,  plates  in  hands  of,  74. 
See  also  Electrotypers 

Firmin-Didot.     See  Didot 

Flemish,  accents  used  in,  233 

Folding-machines,  different  forms 
of,  332,  333,  343  (note),  359  (note  2), 
362,  389-392 

Fonts,  large  and  small,  1,  2 ;  com- 
position not  economically  done 
with  small,  3  (see  also  note),  4; 
scheme  for,  16, 17;  need  of  many 
small,  35 ;  music,  219 ;  of  many 
faces  and  sizes,  232.  See  also 
Letters  and  Types 

Foot-notes,  types  needed  for,  1,  2 ; 
placing  of,  99,  277,  278,  279 ;  set- 
ting of,  139.  See  also  Notes 

Foot-sticks.     See  Side-sticks 

Forms,  table  of  signatures  and 
folios  for  different,  272, 273 ;  mak- 
ing front  margins  for  eight-page, 
303  ;  making  tail  margins  for  six- 
teen-page, 304;  locking  up,  306- 
320;  taking  proofs  of,  320,  321; 
cleaning,  321,  322  (see  also  note); 
inserting  points  in,  325, 326 ;  print- 
ing of,  on  cylinder-presses,  326, 
327;  breaking  up  of,  327,  328; 
schemes  of  imposition  grouped  in 
four  classes  of,  335;  rules  con- 
trolling imposition  of,  337,  338 


468 


Index 


(see  also  note);  adjusting  margins 
of,  for  electrotyping,  366,  367. 
See  also  Imposition 

Formulas,  algebraic,  176,  177,  178, 
181-183,  185,  186,  187,  188 

Fournier,  Pierre-Simon,  234  (note) 

Fractions,  freakish  placing  of,  in 
type  cases,  11 ;  rarely  needed,  12 ; 
weight  of,  in  font,  16;  in  book- 
work,  18;  combining  of,  in  alge- 
bra, 172,  176 

Frames.    See  Stands 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  1 

French,  copy  in,  231 ;  accents  used 
in,  233 

Furniture,  wood  and  metal,  2,  62, 
63 ;  old  and  new  forms  of,  5 ;  chase, 
63 ;  orderly  storage  of,  64  et  seq. , 
289;  metal  preferable  to  wood, 
70,  71,  316,  317;  combination 
metal,  71,  72 ;  for  gutters  of  back 
margins,  256;  how  to  prevent 
needless  cutting  of,  257 ;  pages 
protected  by  stoneman  with,  259 ; 
effect  of  moisture  upon  wooden, 
288;  proper  distinguished  from 
improper  use  of,  309,  310;  re- 
tightening  of  quoins  in  forms  with 
wooden,  318 ;  guards  of  metal,  319 ; 
removal  of,  from  forms,  327 ;  when 
to  select  and  put  in  place,  342 
(note),  343;  fitting  new  forms  with, 
345  (note),  395;  shrinkage  of,  352. 
See  also  Side-sticks 

Furniture-cabinet,  67  (see  also 
note)-10  (see  also  note) 

Furniture-drawers,  64,  66,  68,  70, 
289,  290 

Furniture-racks,  65,  66,  70,  71,  72 

Galley-racks,  quadrat  cases  made  to 
rest  upon,  34;  purpose  of,  41; 
with  swinging  arms,  41 ;  with 
fixed  arms,  41;  with  inclined 
shelves,  42 

Galleys,  2;  stands  made  with  sup- 
ports for,  7  ;  broad  standing  and 
movable,  8;  placed  underneath 
cases,  10,  26 ;  description  and  use 
of,  39  ;  wood,  brass,  and  slice,  39, 
40,  290;  description  and  purpose 
of  standing,  42,  43 ;  proving  of,  80 
et  seq.;  type  read  and  corrected 
on,  256 ;  of  composed  type,  257 ; 
materials  for  making  up  should  be 
placed  on  small,  258 ;  quarto,  with 
low  rim,  preferred  for  making  up, 
258  ;  justifying  on,  324  ;  standing, 
reserved  for  distribution,  327 

Gazetteers,  side-headings  of,  137 


Genealogies,  composition  of,  225-230 

German,  copy  in,  231 ;  accents  used 
in,  233;  alphabet  of,  247-249; 
cases  for  composition  of,  250,  251 
(see  also  note);  double  letters  in, 
250 ;  umlaut  over  vowels  in,  251 ; 
capitalization  of,  251;  division 
and  compounding  of  words  in, 
251,  252;  quotation-marks  and 
arabic  figures  in,  252 ;  characters 
of,  252,  253 

Germany,  fantastic  borders  in  fash- 
ion in,  108;  medieval  initial  let- 
ters frequently  used  in,  153 ;  use 
of  roman  character  in,  253 

Goodson  Graphotype,  402 

Gothic,  legend  lines  in,  281 

Greek,  cases  for  composition  of,  38 ; 
aid  to  correct  distribution  of,  95  ; 
use  of,  in  algebra,  173  (note);  copy 
in,  231;  breathings  of,  233  (note), 
236;  alphabet  of,  234,  235;  work- 
ing font  of,  234  (see  also  note);  ac- 
cents of,  236;  cases  for  composi- 
tion of,  237 ;  rules  for  placing 
accents  in,  238 ;  different  faces 
of,  239 

Greeley,  Horace,  463 

Gregory,  St.,  219 

Guards,  electrotype,  sectional  cases 
for,  31 ;  description  and  use  of, 
73,  74,  316,  318-320 

Gutters,  63,  64  (see  also  note),  71, 
256,  257,  274,  310 

Half-diamond  indention.  See  In- 
dention 

Half-titles,  setting  of  parts  and,  130 
(see  also  note),  131.  See  also 
Titles  and  Title-pages 

Hand-presses,  taking  proofs  on, 
320 ;  presswork  done  on,  336,  337, 
344  (note);  usual  place  of  points 
for,  363  (note) 

Hand-work,  contrasted  with  ma- 
chine-work, 96,  97  ;  proper  meth- 
ods of,  97  et  seq. 

Hanging  indention.    See  Indention 

Harper,  James,  75 

Head-bands,  on  use  of,  159-167,  168 

Head-bolts,  63,  64,  71,  310,  347,  364 

Heading-chases.     See  Chases 

Headings.  See  Chapter  headings, 
Side-headings,  and  Subheadings 

Hebrew,  cases  for  composition  of, 
38;  aid  to  correct  distribution 
of,  95 ;  copy  in,  231 ;  alphabet  of, 
241,  242 ;  points  as  guides  to  pro- 
nunciation of,  242,  243;  accents 
and  Masoretic  points  or  vowels 


Index 


469 


of,  243,  244;  Shevas  used  in,  245; 

read  from  right  to  left,  245,  393; 

cases  for  composition  of,  245,  246 ; 

words  in,  cannot  be  divided,  247 
Herapel  quoin,  296,  297 
Hints  on  Imposition   (Williams's). 

lifting  device  described   in,  291 

(note) 
History  of  the  Origin  of  Printing, 

278  (note) 

Holy  Scriptures.    See  Bible 
Honghton,  Henry  0.,  Ill 
Hungarian,  accents  used  in,  233 
Hyphens,  use  of  thin  space  on  each 

side  of,  88 ;  in  German,  252 ;  faulty 

use  of,  276 

Iliad,  Pickering's  edition  of,  239 
(note) 

Illuminators,  fifteenth-century,  159 

Illustrations,  electro  typed,  32 ;  fur- 
nishing of,  80,  81 ;  text  led  down 
at  side  of,  90;  relief  of  white 
needed  by,  106 ;  setting  of  table 
of,  129,  130 ;  testing  of,  140,  141 ; 
placing  of,  141,  284-286,  287;  of 
running  titles,  264-267,  268,  269 ; 
placing  of,  in  pages,  276,  277 ;  le- 
gend lines  of,  280-282  (see  also  note 
1);  of  irregular  shape,  283,  284; 
wood-blocking  of  electrotype,  288; 
moulding  of,  318 ;  scheme  for 
printing,  361,  362.  See  also  Cuts, 
Engravings,  and  Photo-engrav- 
ings 

Image,  Selwyn,  Greek  type  designed 
by,  239,  240 

Imperial  Printing  House,  Vienna, 
232  (note) 

Imposing-stone,  2;  dimensions  of, 
67;  made-up  pages  on,  274;  use 
of,  in  composing-room,  289 ;  many 
sizes  of,  289,  290;  should  be 
cleaned  before  pages  are  laid 
down,  306;  flat  side  of  quoins 
should  rest  upon,  311;  types  too 
tightly  locked  up  spring  from, 
312, 313 ;  correcting  and  justifying 
on,  324 ;  preparatory  work  on, 
325;  fitting  of  chase-rack  under, 
330 

Imposing-table.  See  Imposing-stone 

Imposition,  adjusting  margins  in, 
297-306;  locking  up,  306-320;  ele- 
mentary principles  of,  331-337 ; 
four  pages  in  two  forms  and  two 
chases,  337;  four  pages  in  one 
chase,  338;  four  pages  in  one 
chase,  long  way,  339 ;  four  pages 
in  one  chase,  imposed  from  centre, 


339  ;  sixty-four  pages  in  one  chase, 
four  sections  of  sixteen,  341 ;  cir- 
cular of  two  pages  only,  the  print 
on  first  and  third  pages,  345 ;  inset 
folio  of  twenty  pages  in  ten  forms, 
346  ;  legal  folio  of  four  pages,  347  ; 
legal  folio  of  sixteen  pages,  im- 
posed for  insets,  348 ;  eight  pages 
in  one  form,  music  or  oblong  way, 
348;  eight  pages  in  usual  way, 
349;  eight  pages  imposed  from 
centre,  349;  eight  pages  in  two 
sections  of  four,  known  as  "  two 
on,"  349;  eight-page  forms  in 
three  chases,  inset  to  make  one 
section  of  twenty-four  pages,  350  ; 
eight  pages,  two  wide,  four  high, 
351 ;  eight  pages  for  offcut  of 
paper,  351 ;  sixteen  pages  in  two 
chases  for  one  section,  351 ;  six- 
teen pages,  imposed  from  centre. 
353 ;  sixteen  pages  as  usually  laid, 
353;  sixteen  pages  as  two  sections 
of  eight,  354 ;  sixteen  pages  in 
two  portions  of  eight  for  inset, 
354 ;  sixteen  pages  in  two  sections 
of  twelve  and  four,  355;  sixteen 
pages  in  three  sections,  one  of 
eight  and  two  of  four  pages,  356 ; 
sixteen  oblong  pages,  music  way, 
one  section,  356 ;  thirty-two  pages 
in  two  chases,  to  fold  as  one  sec- 
tion, 357 ;  thirty-two  pages  in  two 
forms,  separately  folded  and  inset 
as  one  section,  358;  thirty-two 
pages  as  four  sections  of  eight 
pages  each,  359 ;  ninety-six  pages 
in  one  chase,  six  sections  of  six- 
teen, 360  ;  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty-eight pages  in  one  chase,  eight 
sections  of  sixteen,  361;  twelve 
pages  in  one  chase,  363 ;  twenty- 
four  pages  in  two  chases,  as  one 
section,  365 ;  twelve  pages  in  one 
chase,  triplicates  of  four  pages, 
368;  twelve  pages  of  oblong  shape, 
no  inset,  central  imposition,  369; 
twenty-four  pages,  oblong  shape, 
inset  of  eight,  370;  twenty-four 
pages  in  one  chase,  with  offcut  of 
eight  inset  as  one  section,  371; 
twenty-four  pages  in  one  chase, 
two  sections  of  twelve,  offcuts 
separately  folded  and  inset,  371 ; 
twenty-four  pages  on  square  sheet, 
with  offcut  of  eight  inset  as  one 
section,  372;  twenty-four  pages 
on  square  shape  of  sheet,  two  sec- 
tions of  twelve,  373;  forty-eight 
pages  in  one  chase,  three  sections 


470 


Index 


of  sixteen,  square  shape  of  paper, 
374;  seventy-two  pages  in  one 
chase,  six  sections  of  twelve,  376 ; 
eighteen  pages  in  one  chase,  for 
one  section,  377 ;  eighteenmo  fold 
of  sixteen  pages  only,  one  leaf 
cancelled,  379;  thirty -six  pages 
in  two  chases,  three  sections  of 
twelve,  380 ;  seventy-two  pages  in 
one  chase,  three  sections  of  twen- 
ty-four, 381 ;  twenty  pages  in  one 
chase  as  one  section,  382;  twenty 
pages  in  one  chase  as  one  section 
without  transposition,  383  ;  forty 
pages  in  one  chase,  one  section, 
inset  of  eight,  384;  six-page  leaf- 
lets in  strip  one  page  high,  385 ; 
ten-page  leaflet,  two  pages  high, 
386 ;  eight  pages  in  quadruplicate, 
or  "  four  on,"  387 ;  study  of,  made 
needlessly  repelling,  396 

Imprint,  black-letter  not  suitable 
for,  112  (note);  broadest  blank 
above,  in  title-pages,  114 

Indention,  use  and  omission  of,  92, 
93,  104,  105;  half-diamond  and 
hanging,  in  title-pages,  127;  in 
chapter  headings,  132;  of  synop- 
sis, 133 ;  of  index,  147 ;  of  poetry, 
149,  150;  half-diamond,  for  le- 
gends, 281 

Index,  for  cuts,  33 ;  paging  of,  146 ; 
setting  of,  147,  148 

Initials,  plain,  2;  out  of  place  in 
title-pages,  120,  125;  on  use  of, 
151-159,  160,  161,  163,  167,  168 

Ink,  removal  of,  from  face  of  type, 
321,  322  (see  also  note);  tends  to 
collect  at  ends  of  inking-rollers, 
339  (note) 

Ink-table,  81 

Insets.    See  Imposition 

Introduction,  setting  of,  133,  134 

Irish,  alphabet  of,  233  (note) 

Italian,  copy  in,  231 ;  accents  used 
in,  233 

Italic,  increased  supply  of,  some- 
times needed,  2 ;  often,  when  re- 
quired, at  inconvenient  distance, 
5;  weight  of,  in  font,  16;  copy 
requiring  two  or  more  sizes  of, 
22;  accent  case  for,  30;  unifor- 
mity in  use  of,  77 ;  lower-case  of, 
tolerated  style  for  title-pages, 
111 ;  for  long  dedication,  128;  for 
long  synopsis,  133;  for  preface, 
133;  for  subheadings,  135,  136; 
for  side-headings,  136;  occasion- 
ally selected  for  poetry,  138 ;  un- 
suitable for  side-notes,  139;  run- 


ning titles  in  lower-case  and  in 
capitals  of,  142;  use  of,  in  alge- 
bra, 173  (see  also  note);  for  infe- 
rior letters,  or  subscripts,  184; 
avoided  in  German,  252;  different 
sizes  and  faces  of,  for  running 
titles,  262,  263;  unsuitable  for 
side-notes,  279 ;  legend  lines  in, 
281 

Jacobi,  Charles  T.,  treatise  of,  on 
printing,  14  (note) 

Jacobs,  Joseph,  228  (note) 

Job-printers,  special  cases  provided 
for,  35;  composing-rules  of,  usu- 
ally of  brass,  46;  very  thin  spaces 
used  by,  87.  See  also  Compositors 
and  Printers 

Job-stick.     See  Composing-stick 

Job-work,  furniture-rack  devised 
for,  70 ;  certain  kinds  of,  167 ; 
locking  up  and  correcting  made- 
up  pages  of,  289.  See  also  Dis- 
play 

Johnson  Tachytype,  402 

Justification,  facilities  for,  15; 
spaces  repeatedly  changed  in,  21 ; 
of  algebraic  work,  34 ;  slight  un- 
evenness  in,  55;  importance  of 
exact,  86  (see  also  note),  87,  306, 
316,  317;  time-wasting,  171;  by 
gauges,  193,  194;  of  genealogical 
charts,  228;  mischiefs  produced 
by  loose  or  careless,  312,  316,  317. 
See  also  Spacing 

Kelmscott    books,    159.    See    also 

Morris,  William 
Keyboard,  correct  fingering  of,  447 

et  seq. 

Languages,  accents  and  signs  re- 
quired in  foreign,  2 

Lanston  machine,  402 

Latin,  copy  in,  231 

Law  cases,  1 

Lead-cutters,  58,  59 

Leaders,  weight  of,  in  font,  16 ;  tray 
cases  for,  31,  32;  cases  with  un- 
equal compartments  needed  for, 
38 

Leading,  spacing  and,  88  et  seq. 

Lead-rack,  new  form  of,  60,  61 

Leads,  2;  case  for,  34;  high  and 
low,  35 ;  cases  with  unequal  com- 
partments needed  for,  38;  de- 
scription, use,  and  sizes  of,  56,  57 
(see  also  notes);  different  methods 
of  keeping,  57-59,  61;  should  be 
ordered  with  system,  60,  91; 


Index 


471 


weight  of,  required  in  book-house, 
60 ;  should  never  be  pieced,  61, 62 ; 
addition  or  withdrawal  of,  258 ;  of 
different  thicknesses,  258;  diffi- 
culty of  locking  up  forms  full  of 
thin,  315,  316 

Leaflets,  description  and  imposition 
of,  385,  386 

Letter-boards,  racks  for  stowing,  43; 
should  have  raised  rim  at  extreme 
end,  43;  pages  on,  84;  type  for 
distribution  on,  93,  327,  328 

Letterpress,  rules  most  useful  for, 
52,  53 ;  low  leads  used  for,  56 ;  full 
form  of,  257 

Letters,  small  fonts  of  two-line  cap- 
ital, 2;  spaces  furnished  with 
font  of,  15,  16 ;  weight  of,  in  font, 
16;  double,  19;  spacing  of  capi- 
tal, 90 ;  dense  huddling  of  capital, 
106 ;  uncouth,  107  (see  also  note); 
pinched,  120 ;  condensed,  for  cut- 
in  notes,  139;  initial,  151-159;  in 
algebra,  172,  173 ;  superior  and 
inferior,  173  (note),  174,  176,  184. 
See  also  Capitals,  Characters, 
Small  capitals,  and  Types 

Linotype,  Mergenthaler,  403  et  seq. 

Linotype  operator,  how  to  become 
an  expert,  426,  427,  433,  445  et 
seq. 

Literature,  Bidpai,  Pedigree  of,  226, 
227,  228  (see  also  note) 

Locking  up,  how  to  acquire  skill  in, 
306-320 

London,  music  published  in,  208 

Lower-case,  weight  and  proportion 
of,  in  font,  16,  17 ;  proposed  case 
for  capitals  and,  19 ;  arrangement 
of  case  for  capitals,  small  capitals, 
and,  22;  job  cases  for  capitals 
and,  28 ;  spacing  of  capitals  and, 
90;  table  of  contents  in  roman, 
128;  for  chapter  synopsis,  133; 
cut-in  notes  in  small  sizes  of,  139 ; 
running  titles  in  italic,  142,  262, 
263 ;  small-sized,  for  running 
titles,  143;  roman,  for  cut-in 
notes,  280 ;  legend  lines  in  roman 
and  in  italic,  281 

Lye,  boiling,  84  (note),  94,  322 

Machines.  See  the  various  qualify- 
ing names 

Machine-work,  contrasted  with 
hand-work,  96,  97 

Mackellar,  Thomas,  289 

Macmillan  Company,  239 

McMillan  machine,  401 

Magazines,    subheadings    of,    107; 


side-stitching  of,  334  (note),  392; 
folding-machines  for,  390 

Make-up.    See  Making  up 

Maker-up,  compact  arrangement  of 
cases  an  advantage  to,  10 ;  duties 
of,  78  et  seq.,  99,  132,  141,  146,  260, 
262,  269,  274,  277,  280,  286,  330; 
should  have  a  diagram,  255,  299, 
302,  342  (note);  gauge  used  by,  256 ; 
measuring  and  marking  off  by, 
257;  responsible  for  justification 
of  composition,  258 ;  should  have 
ready  access  to  needed  materials, 
258;  copy  and  proof  should  be 
continually  before,  260;  amend- 
ment of  fault  by,  275 

Making  up,  not  paid  for  by  piece, 
76 ;  methods  of,  78  et  seq.;  diagram 
needed  in,  255;  gauge  for,  256; 
quarto  galley  with  low  rim  pre- 
ferred for,  258;  tying  up  page  in, 
258,  259 ;  duties  included  in,  260 ; 
of  chapters,  268,  269  (see  also 
note);  one  of  the  modern  methods 
of,  283;  of  pages  in  two  colors, 
288;  a  study  without  end,  288; 
correct  stone-work  dependent  on 
exact,  306 ;  search  for  faults  in,  317 

Mallet,  description  and  use  of,  295, 
296,  297  ;  improper  use  of,  311,  312, 
313;  first  strokes  of,  should  be 
light,  315 ;  should  not  be  laid  on 
face  of  form,  324 

Mannerisms,  recent,  in  typography, 
104  et  seq. 

Manuel  Typographique,  234  (note) 

Manuscript,  tables  in,  202;  setting 
genealogical  charts  from,  228, 229 ; 
in  Greek,  234;  in  German,  254. 
See  also  Copy 

Marchand,  Prosper,  278  (note) 

Marginal  sheet.     See  Pattern  sheet 

Margins,  adjustment  of,  297-306, 332 
(note),  342  (note),  345  (note),  347, 

.  348,  364,  366, 367, 385,  386, 392,  394, 
395 

Matrices,  linotype,  404  et  seq.;  treat- 
ment of,  429,  430 

Mechaniek  Exercises,  14  (note) 

Melting-pot,  treatment  of,  428,  429, 
433,  434 

Mergenthaler  Linotype  machine,  403 
et  seq.;  learning  to  operate,  426, 
427;  management  of,  4-27,  428; 
temperature  of  metal,  428.  429; 
treatment  of  matrices,  429,  430; 
treatment  of  spaces  or  justiflers, 
431,  432;  cleaning,  432,  433;  the 
melting-pot,  433,  434;  the  mould, 
435 ;  the  mould  disk,  435,  436  ;  cau- 


472 


Index 


tionary  remarks,  445,  446 ;  correct 
keyboard  fingering,  447  et  seq. 
Mergenthaler,  Ottmar,  397 
Mitring,  value  of  time  given  to,  48 ; 
method  of,  49,  50;  thin  rule  not 
suitable  for,  54,  55;   testing  ac- 
curacy of,  316 

Mitring-machines,  48,  49,  188 
Monotype,  for  running  titles,  262 
Monotype.     See  Lanston  machine 
Morris,  William,  disciples  of,  105; 
title-page  of,  125 ;  odd  initials  de- 
signed   by,   159;    composition  in 
style  of,  282  (note  2) 
Motto,  placing  of,  in  title-pages,  124, 
125    (see    also    note);    improved 
method  of  setting,  287 
Mould,  treatment  of,  435,  436 
Moulding,  use  of  guards  or  bearers 

in,  318-320 

Moulding-press,  pressure  of,  344 
Moxon,  Joseph,  upper  case  shown 

by,  14  (note) 
Munsell,  Joel,  331 
M  usic,  cases  for,  38 ;  setting  of  books 
of,  97;    on  the  composition  of, 
207-225;  imposition  of  pages  of, 
348 

National  Printing  House,  Paris,  232 
(note) 

Newspapers,  weekly,  1 ;  form  of 
composing-stick  preferred  on,  44, 
45;  imposing-stone  for  making 
up,  289 ;  twin  chases  preferred  for 
ordinary  weekly,  291, 292;  locking 
up,  317 

Notes,  types  for,  77 ;  side-  and  cut- 
in,  90,  97,  139,  140,  279,  280;  lead- 
ing of,  137;  setting  of,  139,  140; 
long,  276,  277,  278;  placing  of, 
278,  279.  See  also  Foot-notes  and 
Side-notes 

Numerals,  roman,  in  lines  of  capi- 
tals, 123,  124;  for  parts  and 
half-titles,  130, 131 ;  paging  with, 
134.  See  also  Figures 

Odyssey,  Pickering's  edition  of,  239 

(note) 

Offcuts.    See  Imposition 
Old  English.    See  Black-letter 
Old-style,  complete  series  of,  2 
Operator,  how  to  become  an  expert, 

96,  426,  427,  433,  445  et  seq. 
Oriental  languages,fonts  of,232(»o£e) 
Ornamentation,    unwise     fondness 

for,  108, 109 ;  profuse,  169  (see  also 

note).    See  also  Decoration 
Outsets.    See  Imposition 


Paige  machine,  398 

Pamphlets,  printed  from  type,  73; 
from  electrotype  plates,  73 ;  with- 
out running  title,  144, 145  ;  adver- 
tising, 169  (note);  of  one  or  two 
sheets,  257 ;  new  styles  of  folding- 
machines  for,  333;  side-stitching 
of,  334  (note),  375,  378  (note),  392 ; 
centre-stitching  of,  340  (note  2); 
single-sheet,  377  ;  cheap,  381,  383, 
384,  396 ;  small,  386-388.  See  also 
Books 

Panels,  title-pages  in,  108,  126 

Paper,  sizes  of,  used  in  book- work, 
297-306,  370  (note),  372,  374,  377 
(see  also  note),  383,  394;  for 
proofs,  323 ;  large  sizes  and  strange 
shapes  of,  331 ;  how  to  utilize  off- 
cuts  of,  351;  how  to  prevent  or 
lessen  buckling  of,  355,  357  ;  hand- 
made, 364 ;  smooth-edged,  364 

Paragraphs,  print  made  more  read- 
able by,  78 ;  the  spacing  of  dashes 
between,  92 ;  the  indention  of,  92, 
93;  numbered  or  lettered,  136; 
the  overrunning  of,  324  (see  also 
note) 

Parentheses,  in  algebra,  173,  178, 
179,  180,  185,  186 

Pattern  sheet,  for  adjusting  mar- 
gins, 297-306,  342  (note) 

Pedigree  of  Bidpai  Literature,  226, 
227,  228  (see  also  note) 

Pedigrees,  composition  of,  225-230 

Periodicals.    See  Magazines 

Photo-engravings,  paper  for,  140 
(note);  typography  and,  230;  half- 
tone, 318;  cleaning  of,  322  (see 
also  note).  See  also  Cuts,  En- 
gravings, and  Illustrations 

Pi,  making  of,  104 

Pickering,  William,  safe  leadership 
of,  110 ;  edition  of  Iliad  and  Odys- 
sey by,  239  (note) 

Piece-fractions,  in  algebra,  174 

Piece-hands,  composition  done  by, 
75,  76 

Planer,  description  and  use  of,  295 ; 
proper  distinguished  from  im- 
proper use  of,  311-313,  315,  317 

Plantin,  Christopher,  large  initials 
of,  158 

Plates,  electrotype,  53,  54,  55; 
pamphlets  and  books  printed 
from,  73;  etched  by  photo-en- 
graving process,  140, 141 ;  type  off 
its  feet  a  cause  of  faulty,  260 ;  un- 
even electrotype,  306;  use  of 
guards  in  moulding,  318-320;  ad- 
justing margins  for,  366,  367 


Index 


473 


Poetry,  setting  of,  148-151 ;  making 
up  of,  286 

Points,  increased  supply  of,  some- 
times needed,  2 ;  arrangement  of, 
in  type  cases,  11,  12;  boxes  for, 
15 ;  weight  of,  in  font,  16 ;  should 
be  in  groups  in  lower  case,  19 

Points,  in  presswork,  325,  326,  340 
(note  1),  363  (note),  390,  391 

Point  system,  type  bodies  measured 
by,  1,  2,  171 ;  brass  rules  rolled  to 
conform  to,  47,  171 ;  value  of,  in 
algebraic  composition,  181 

Polhemus,  John,  double  stand  de- 
signed by,  7-9,  10 

Polish,  accents  used  in,  233 

Person,  Richard,  Greek  type  de- 
signed by,  239,  240 

Portuguese,  accents  used  in,  233 

Preface,  setting  of,  133,  134 

Press,  moulding,  73,  74 

Pressmen,  not  always  responsible 
for  imperfect  printing  of  brass 
rules,  54 ;  aid  to,  in  making  ready, 
87  ;  hair-line  rules  objectionable 
to,  143  (note);  how  to  aid,  in 
making  register,  288 ;  margins  reg- 
ulated by,  302,  345  (note);  prepar- 
ing forms  for,  308,  309;  treatment 
of  forms  by  careful,  315  (note), 
318 ;  advantages  of  half-sheet 
work  to,  337  (note);  use  of  dummy 
as  guide  by,  346 

Press-room,  needs  of,  79 

Presswork,  needless  delay  and 
trouble  in,  54 ;  preparing  form  for, 
315  (note);  use  of  points  in,  325, 
326,  340  (note  1),  363  (note),  390, 
391 ;  sheetwise,  336,  337  (see  also 
note);  half-sheet,  337  (note),  342; 
how  to  save  extra,  355 

Print,  use  of  paragraphs  in,  78 

Printers,  master,  3 ;  of  northern 
Europe,  14  (note);  names  used  by, 
to  designate  brass  rules,  47 ;  their 
contracts  with  publishers,  75,  76; 
undervaluation  by,  80;  the  meth- 
ods of  early,  127 ;  some  attempts 
at  decoration  by  early,  159;  the 
facs  made  by  French  and  Eng- 
lish, 165  ;  the  hackneyed  decora- 
tions of,  170;  schemes  of  impo- 
sition from  the  grammars  of,  331. 
See  also  Compositors  and  Job- 
printers 

Printing,  proper  equipment  for,  1, 
2;  rude  types  that  deform,  108; 
masterpieces  of,  168;  adjustment 
of  mareins  in,  297-306 ;  locking  up 
forms  for,  306-320 ;  sheetwise,  336, 


337  (see  also  note).  See  also  Ty- 
pography 

Printing-houses,  equipment  of,  1  et 
seq.;  supply  of  type  must  largely 
exceed  demand  in,  3 ;  cabinet  case 
for  cuts,  with  index,  needed  in, 33 ; 
many  faces  of  roman  types  pro- 
vided by,  96;  style  code  of,  99; 
characters  needed  for  miscellane- 
ous book-work  in,  232 ;  making  up 
in,  256  (see  also  note);  adjustment 
of  margins  in,  297-306 

Printing-machines.  See  Printiny- 
presses 

Printing-presses,  pressure  of,  54 ; 
chases  made  to  suit,  290;  chases 
used  as  substitute  for  furniture 
on  bed  of,  294 ;  quoins  loosened 
by  jarring  of,  318;  rotary,  332, 
352,  362 

Prints,  tipping  on  of,  334  (note) 

Proof-paper,  81,  82 

Proof-planer,  83,  295 ;  taking  proofs 
with,  320, 321 

Proof -press,  82 

Proof-readers,  corrections  by,  76, 
83 ;  copy  and  proof  passed  to,  80, 
321 ;  proof  returned  to  composi- 
tors by,  83,  323 ;  other  duties  of, 
84 ;  second  reading  by,  84,  85 ;  re- 
vising and  querying  by,  324,  325; 
dummy  of  service  to,  346 ;  reckon- 
ing with,  on  linotypes,  449,  459 

Proof-reading,  not  paid  by  piece,  76 

Proofs,  taking  and  correction  of, 
3-20-327 

Propaganda  Fide,  Rome,  232  (note) 

Publishers,  contracts  of,  with  em- 
ploying printers,  75,  76 ;  under- 
valuation by,  80 ;  changes  in  proof 
by,  85 ;  capricious  taste  of  authors 
and,  96 ;  real  sponsors  of  books, 
108 ;  roman  capitals  preferred  for 
title-pages  by,  111;  ornamental 
types  in  running  titles  not  accept- 
able to,  262;  instructions  from, 
concerning  margins,  298,  300,  301 

Punctuation,  in  type-setting,  99 

Quadrats,  increased  supply  of,  some- 
times needed,  2 ;  arrangement  of, 
in  type  cases,  11,  12 ;  weight  of, 
in  font,  16,  20;  irregular  use  of 
large,  21 ;  tray  cases  for,  32 ;  case 
for  spaces  and,  34 ;  common  form 
of  case  for,  35  ;  preferred  for  elec- 
trotypiug,  73,  74;  preferable  to 
leads  for  blanks,  92,  262 ;  of  differ- 
ent bodies,  258 ;  with  nicks,  259 ; 
use  of,  to  make  form  solid,  316; 


474 


Index 


best  electrotype  plates  made  from 
types  set  with  high,  319.  Abbre- 
viated Quads 

Quoins,  63,  64,  293  et  seq.',  patent, 
296,  297,  313,  317,  318;  selection 
of,  306 ;  proper  distinguished  from 
improper  use  of,  309,  311 ;  pro- 
viding even  resistance  to  pressure 
of,  313,  344;  tightening  of,  314, 
315;  advantage  of  patent  over 
wood,  316;  slackening  of,  317; 
retightening  of,  318;  removal  of, 
from  forms,  327 

Quotation-marks,  uniformity  in  use 
of,  77 ;  for  short  extracts  or  quo- 
tations in  text,  137;  old  fashion 
of  using,  137,  138;  single,  150; 
placing  of,  150  ;  in  German,  252 

Quotations,  forms  of  metal  furni- 
ture, 72,  73,  258,  316 

Quotations,  or  extracts,  short,  in 
text,  137 ;  long,  286 ;  driving  out 
or  getting  in,  when  making  up, 
287  ;  improved  method  of  setting, 
287 

Racks,  2,  6,  7,  10;  availability  of 
sorts  in,  18, 19  ;  with  supports,  23, 
26;  for  galleys,  34;  for  leads,  34; 
job  cases  fitted  to,  35;  under 
standing  galleys,  43;  for  chases, 
289 

Readers.     See  Proof-readers 

Reading-room,  needs  of,  79.  See  also 
Proof-readers  and  Proof-reading 

Reference-marks,  freakish  placing 
of,  in  type  cases,  11 ;  supplanted 
by  superior  figures,  12 ;  weight  of, 
in  font,  16 ;  in  book-work,  18 ;  for 
long  notes,  276 ;  of  notes  should 
correspond  to  those  in  text,  278 

Register,  how  to  insure  accurate, 
292,  325,  326,  344,  360,  367,  391,  392  ; 
makeshift  aid  to  exact,  307; 
shrinkage  of  furniture  an  obstacle 
to,  352 

Reglet-case,  labor-saving,  66,  67 

Reglet-rack,  67 

Reglets,  63,  65,  67,  68,  297 

Reprints,  plain,  1 ;  strict,  83,  276 

Revisers,  method  followed  by,  83, 
325 

Rollers,  how  to  keep,  323 ;  tendency 
of  ink  to  collect  at  ends  of,  339 
(note) 

Roman,  variations  from  standard  of 
modern,  2 ;  copy  requiring  two  or 
more  sizes  of,  22 ;  accent  case  for, 
30;  many  faces  of,  needed  by 
large  printing-houses,  96;  lower- 


case of,  tolerated  style  for  title- 
pages,  111 ;  table  of  contents  in 
lower-case  of,  128 ;  capitals  of,  for 
running  titles,  142 ;  use  of,  in  al- 
gebra, 173  (note);  different  sizes 
and  faces  of,  for  running  titles, 
262 ;  legend  lines  in,  281 

Rooker,  Thomas  N.,  case  invented 
by,  15,  23 

Rule.    See  Composing-rule 

Rules,  brass,  2  ;  tray  cases  used  for, 
31,  32;  case  of  four  sections  for, 
34,  35;  cases  with  unequal  com- 
partments needed  for,  38 ;  usually 
furnished  in  strips  two  feet  long, 
46 ;  rolled  to  conform  to  bodies  of 
point  system,  47, 171 ;  names  used 
by  printers  to  designate,  47 ;  faces 
of,  most  used  in  book-work,  47  ; 
bevelled  or  flat-faced,  47,  53;  mi- 
tring and  proper  joining  of,  48; 
labor-saving,  48,  49,  54,  188 ;  cut- 
ting and  testing  of,  49;  cases  for 
labor-saving,  49-52;  plain  faces 
of,  now  more  needed  than  flowers 
or  borders  of  type-metal,  51; 
should  be  bought  from  same  foun- 
dry, 52 ;  for  letterpress  work,  52, 
53;  in  electrotyping,  53,  54;  in 
composition  and  presswork,  54 ; 
made  of  type-metal,  55;  uneven 
justification  prevents  joining  of 
mitred,  87;  panels  of,  108,  126, 
169  (note);  parallel  or  double,  as 
head-bands,  165  ;  combining  of,  in 
algebra,  172,  174,  175  (see  also 
note);  use  of,  in  tables,  190  et  seq.; 
sometimes  used  for  bars  in  music 
composition,  218;  in  genealogies 
and  pedigrees,  225 ;  of  graduated 
length,  258 ;  cuts  surrounded  by, 
285  ;  difficulty  of  locking  up  forms 
containing,  315,  316 ;  use  of  bits  of 
flat-faced,  as  collating-marks,  389 

Rumanian,  accents  used  in,  233 
(note) 

Ruskin,  John,  on  use  of  black  and 
white,  106 

Russian,  one  or  more  fonts  of,  232 
(note) 

Sanskrit,  one  or  more  fonts  of,  232 

(note) 

Savage,  William,  234  (note) 
Saxon,  alphabet  of,  233  (note) 
Schemes.    See  Imposition 
School-books,  long  and  short  accents 

used  in,  30 

Scriptures,  Holy.     See  Bible 
Sections,   cutting,   folding,   gather- 


Index 


475 


ing,  and  sewing  of,  in  book-work, 
332-337,  340  (see  also  note  2),  342, 
362,  365,  366,  368, 375, 376,  385,  386- 
390,  393, 396.  See  also  Imposition 

Sheet.    See  Pattern  sheet 

Shooting-sticks,  87, 290, 295,  296,  297, 
311,  315,  324 

Side-headings,  types  for,  2, 136, 137 ; 
setting  of,  136,  137 

Side-notes,  types  needed  for,  1,  2, 
139 ;  setting  of,  139 ;  placing  of, 
279;  type  and  measure  of,  279; 
abbreviations,  etc.,  in,  279.  See 
also  Notes 

Side-sticks,  63,  64,  292,  295,  296,  306, 
309,  310,  311,  ,313,  316,  317,  344. 
See  also  Furniture 

Signatures,  use  of,  as  guides  to  book- 
binders, 269-271;  table  of,  272, 
273 ;  at  tail  of  sheet,  346.  See  aleo 
Imposition 

Signs,  in  book-work,  18;  proper 
placing  of  astronomical  and  other, 
29 ;  tray  cases  used  for,  31 ;  aid 
to  correct  distribution  of,  95 ;  alge- 
braic, 172,  173,  175,  176,  177,  178, 
183,  184,  185,  186 ;  music,  207 

Simplex  machine,  400,  401 

Slitters,  description  and  adjustment 
of,  391,  392 

Slugs,  cutting  of,  59;  nonpareil  and 
thicker,  62 ;  linotype,  403, 405, 408, 
422,  424,  425 

Small  capitals,  types  without,  14 
(note) ;  weight  of,  in  font,  16 ;  dis- 
carded in  many  books  and  news- 
papers, 18;  case  for  lower-case, 
capitals,  and,  22 ;  line  of  capitals 
and,  not  pleasing  in  title-page, 
120 ;  for  dedication,  127  ;  for  table 
of  contents,  128;  for  chapter  sy- 
nopsis, 132 ;  for  subheadings,  135, 
136;  for  side-headings,  136;  for 
running  titles,  142,  262,  263;  for 
legend  lines,  280,  281.  See  also 
Capitals  and  Letters 

Smashing-machine,  use  of,  388 

Sorts,  orders  for,  2 ;  minor,  12 ;  ex- 
tra, 12,  13 ;  scheme  of,  in  font,  16, 
17 ;  weight  of  lower-case,  20 ; 
proper  placing  of  minor,  29 ;  small 
cases  for  orderly  keeping  of  irreg- 
ular, 38;  additional,  76,  77  (see 
also  note);  distribution  of  unusual, 
328;  treatment  of,  when  in  lim- 
ited supply,  329 

Southward,  John,  treatise  of,  on 
practical  printing,  14  (note) 

Space-rules,  56 

Spaces,    arrangement   of,    in   type 


cases,  11,  12 ;  boxes  for  holding, 
15 ;  most  needed,  16 ;  weight  of,  in 
font,  16,  20;  grouping  of  boxes 
for,  27,  87 ;  case  for  quadrats  and, 
34 ;  best  electrotype  plates  made 
from  types  set  with  high,  319; 
justifying,  324;  linotype,  404  et 
seq.\  treatment  of  linotype,  431, 
432 

Spacing,  facilities  for  even,  15 ;  even, 
21 ;  and  leading,  88  et  seq.;  of 
poetry,  148 ;  of  algebra,  171,  176 ; 
prevention  of  uneven,  284.  See 
also  Justification 

Spanish,  copy  in,  231 ;  accents  used 
in,  233 

Specimen-books,  type-founders', 
156,  159 

Square,  use  of,  in  stone-work,  307, 
315 

Stands,  for  supporting  type  cases,  4 
et  seq.;  availability  of  sorts  in 
racks  under,  18, 19 ;  old-fashioned, 
22 ;  made  for  composition  of  Cen- ' 
tury  Dictionary,  23-27 

Stephens.     See  Estienne 

Stereotyping,  chases  for,  291 

Sticks.  See  Composing-stick,  Shoot- 
ing-sticks, and  Side-sticks 

Stone.    See  Imposing-stone 

Stoneman,  adjustment  of  margins 
by,  297-306,  342  (note),  345  (note); 
square  and  straight-edge  needed 
by,  307 ;  should  lock  up  type  con- 
tinuously and  slowly,  315  ;  form 
with  mitred  brass-rule  borders 
needs  extra  care  by,  316 ;  effect  of 
non-use  of  electrotype  guards  by, 
319 ;  cleaning  of  type  by,  321,  322 ; 
clearing  away  of  dead  matter  by, 
327-330;  use  of  dummy  as  guide 
for,  346 

Stone-work,  not  paid  for  by  piece, 
76 ;  in  American  book-houses,  80 ; 
adjustment  of  margins,  297-306; 
locking  up,  306-320.  See  also  Im- 
position 

Straight-edge,  use  of,  in  stone-work, 
307,  315;  trimming  proofs  with, 
321 

Subheadings,  types  for,  2,  77,  135, 
136,  255;  in  panels,  108;  setting 
of,  135, 136 ;  of  prominence,  167  ; 
driving  out  or  getting  in,  when 
making  up,  287 

Subscripts,  in  algebra,  184,  185 

Swedish,  marked  vowels  of,  30,  233 

"Swift,"  how  to  become  a,  447  et 
seq. 

Synopsis,  should  not  run  over  on 


476 


Index 


following  page,  131  (note);  setting 

of,  132,  133 
Syriac,  one  or  more  fonts  of,  232 

(note) 
System.    See  Point  system 

Tables,  rules  most  useful  for,  52,  53 ; 
types  for,  77 ;  spacing  of,  in  text, 
91,  92,  282 ;  complex,  97 ;  of  con- 
tents, 128,  129;  of  illustrations, 
129,  130;  on  the  composition  of, 
188-207  ;  of  irregular  size,  276,  277  ; 
of  full,  broad  measure,  285,  286; 
of  signatures  and  folios  for  differ- 
ent forms,  272,  273;  locking  up 
forms  containing,  315,  316 

Tail-pieces,  on  the  use  of,  159  et  seq. 

Text,  type  bodies  for  larger  sizes  of, 
2;  led  down  at  side  of  illustra- 
tions, 90 ;  spacing  of  extracts  and 
tables  in,  91,  92 ;  leading  of,  137 ; 
inclosed  with  notes  at  top,  side, 
and  foot,  280 

Thomas,  Isaiah,  39 

Thome  machine,  398 

Time-hands,  composition  done  by, 
75,  76 ;  distribution  by,  328,  329 

Time-tables,  crowded  setting  of, 
198,  200 

Title-pages,  two-line  capital  letters 
for,  2 ;  borders  needed  for  compo- 
sition of,  32 ;  general  effect  of, 
91;  judicious  decoration  of,  108; 
roman  capitals  of  regular  form 
preferred  for,  111,  112 ;  on  the 
setting  of,  112  et  seq.;  filled  with 
flourishes  or  divided  into  panels, 
169  (note).  See  also  Half-titles 

Titles.    See  Title-pages 

Titles,  running,  142-144,  149,  255, 
258,  260-269 

Treadle-presses,  small  forms  on,  386 

Treatises,  accents  and  signs  required 
in  scientific,  2 ;  on  law,  theology, 
or  science,  167;  on  algebra,  172, 
175 ;  accents  in  elocutionary,  232 

Turkish,  borders  in  style  known  as, 
167;  one  or  more  fonts  of,  232 
(note) 

Tweezers,  description  and  use  of, 
46,  323  (see  also  note) 

Type-casting  machines.  SeeLanston 
and  Mergenthaler 

Type-closet,  proper  method  of  stor- 
ing type  in,  328,  329 

Type-founders,  schemes  of,  not  ex- 
actly alike,  16  (note  1);  sectional 
cases  furnished  by,  31 ;  brass  rules 
designated  by  arbitrary  numbers 
of,  47 ;  labor-saving  rule  furnished 


by,  48,  49 ;  guards  provided  by,  73, 
74;  uncouth  letters  of,  107  (see 
also  note);  old-style  figures  re- 
modelled by,  145;  Morris's  odd 
initials  reproduced  by  American, 
159;  engraved  head-bands  of,  164; 
borders  now  provided  by,  167 ; 
decorations  of,  169  (note) ;  alge- 
braic signs  furnished  by,  172 ; 
music  fonts  of  American,  219;  ac- 
cents furnished  by  American,  233 ; 
German,  253 

Type-foundries,  orders  for  "  sorts  " 
from,  2;  old-established  English, 
233  (note) 

Type-metal,  flower*  and  borders  of, 
51 ;  rules  made-  of,  55 ;  furniture 
of,  62 ;  electrotype  guards  made 
from,  318 

Type-racks.    See  Racks 

Types,  fonts  of,  for  all  kinds  of  book 
composition,  1,  2 ;  supply  of,  must 
exceed  daily  needs  of  compositors, 
3  (see  also  note),  4 ;  stands  for  sup- 
porting cases  of,  4  et  seq.;  without 
small  capitals,  14  (note);  analysis 
of  font  of,  16,  17 ;  petty  fonts  of 
display,  29;  for  title-pages  and 
publishers'  circulars,  32,  111  et 
seq.;  need  of  many  small  fonts  of 
display,  35;  similar  styles  of,  to 
be  grouped  together,  35;  case- 
racks  for  display,  36,  37 ;  large  and 
heavy  forms  of,  64;  pamphlets 
and  books  printed  from,  73;  self- 
spacing,  87 ;  justification  of  large, 
87 ;  spacing  and  leading  of,  88  et 
seq.;  correct  method  of  setting,  97 
et  seq.;  over- wide  spacing  of 
single,  107 ;  condensed,  in  title- 
pages,  115,  120;  for  dedication, 
127, 128 ;  for  table  of  contents,  128, 
129;  for  parts  and  half-titles,  130, 
131;  for  chapter  headings,  131, 
132 ;  for  chapter  synopsis,  132, 133 ; 
for  preface  and  introduction,  133, 
134 ;  for  subheadings,  135, 136 ;  for 
side-headings,  136, 137  ;  for  notes, 
139,  140 ;  for  appendix,  147 ;  for 
index,  147,  148;  subheadings, 
rules,  or  propositions  in  bold,  167 ; 
odd,  168;  plain,  168;  eccentric, 
169 ;  cast  upon  irregular  and  un- 
matable  bodies,  171 ;  made  on 
point  system,  171;  music,  207, 
208 ;  diamond  and  excelsior  music, 
225 ;  Greek,  234-240 ;  Hebrew,  241- 
247;  German,  247-253;  for  run- 
ning titles  and  subheadings,  255 ; 
galleys  of  composed,  257 ;  made 


Index 


477 


up  off  their  feet,  259,  260;  for 
running  titles,  262 ;  should  not  be 
made  up  while  wet  or  even  damp, 
288 ;  locking  up  composed,  290, 
291  (see  also  note),  292,  306-320; 
bottled,  313 ;  cleaning  of,  321, 322 ; 
distribution  and  storage  of  dead, 
327-330;  furniture  must  be  ac- 
commodated to  chase  and,  395. 
See  also  Antique,  Capitals,  Gothic, 
Initials,  Italic,  Letters,  Lower- 
case, Roman,  and  Small  capitals 

Type-setters.  See  Compositors,  Job- 
printers,  and  Printers 

Type-setting,  regulating  price  of, 
75,  76;  literary  side  of,  76  (note); 
punctuation  in,  99;  close-spaced 
and  solid,  105,  106;  tables  require 
more  skill  than  plain,  189;  genea- 
logical charts  unlike  all  other 
forms  of,  228.  See  also  Composi- 
tion 

Type-setting  machines,  develop- 
ment of,  96,  397  et  seq.  See  also 
the  various  qualifying  names 

Typography,  recent  mannerisms  in, 
104  et  seq.;  reformers  of,  110;  a 
novelty  of  reformed,  145  (note); 


of  books  should  agree  with  sub- 
ject-matter, 167  ;  of  good  editions 
should  be  studied,  170;  photo-en- 
graving and,  230.  See  also  Print- 
ing 

United  States,  working  in  compan- 
ionship no.  longer  practised  in, 
80.  See  also  America 

University  Press,  Oxford,  England, 
232  (note) 

Vinculum,  in  algebra,  183,  184 

Wax,  moulding,  53,  73,  74,  318,  319 
Welsh,  accents  used  in,  233 
Westcott,  C.  S.,  machine  invented 

by,  402 

Whittingham,  Charles,  safe  leader- 
ship of,  110 

Willems,  Alphonse,  228  (note) 
Williams,  T.  B.,  device  of,  to  aid 
in  lifting  large  forms  of  type,  291 
(note) 
Woodcuts.    See  Cuts,  Engravings, 

and  Illustrations 
Writers.    See  Authors 


